diff --git a/slides/intro-container-security.yml.html b/slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
index c74de94..05562fb 100644
--- a/slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
+++ b/slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
@@ -29,20 +29,12 @@ i share: Introduction Container Security and Hardening<br/>
 
 .debug[
 ```
+ M slides/airgapped/Importing_Images.md
  M slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
- M slides/kube-adv.yml.html
- M slides/kube-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/kube-twodays.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-video.yml.html
 
 ```
 
-These slides have been built from commit: 3bec906
+These slides have been built from commit: c4b7834
 
 
 [shared/title.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/title.md)]
diff --git a/slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html b/slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
index 7fd2147..447dd97 100644
--- a/slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
+++ b/slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
@@ -29,21 +29,13 @@ Introduction to Containers in an Airgapped Environment<br/>
 
 .debug[
 ```
+ M slides/airgapped/Importing_Images.md
  M slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
- M slides/kube-adv.yml.html
- M slides/kube-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/kube-twodays.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-video.yml.html
 
 ```
 
-These slides have been built from commit: 3bec906
+These slides have been built from commit: c4b7834
 
 
 [shared/title.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/title.md)]
@@ -2651,7 +2643,7 @@ class: title
 Let's pull a public Ubuntu image.
 
 There is no real magic here.
-
+.lab[
 ```bash
 $ docker pull ubuntu:22.04
 22.04: Pulling from library/ubuntu
@@ -2660,7 +2652,7 @@ Digest: sha256:ac58ff7fe25edc58bdf0067ca99df00014dbd032e2246d30a722fa348fd799a5
 Status: Downloaded newer image for ubuntu:22.04
 docker.io/library/ubuntu:22.04
 ```
-
+]
 * This image has only one layer, but that is not relevant.
 
 .debug[[airgapped/Importing_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/airgapped/Importing_Images.md)]
diff --git a/slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html b/slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html
index f26f1ce..8abb40f 100644
--- a/slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html
+++ b/slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html
@@ -29,22 +29,14 @@ Introduction to Helm and friends<br/>
 
 .debug[
 ```
+ M slides/airgapped/Importing_Images.md
  M slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html
- M slides/kube-adv.yml.html
- M slides/kube-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/kube-twodays.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-video.yml.html
 
 ```
 
-These slides have been built from commit: 3bec906
+These slides have been built from commit: c4b7834
 
 
 [shared/title.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/title.md)]
diff --git a/slides/intro-fd-k8s.yml.html b/slides/intro-fd-k8s.yml.html
index f161741..11c0a60 100644
--- a/slides/intro-fd-k8s.yml.html
+++ b/slides/intro-fd-k8s.yml.html
@@ -29,23 +29,15 @@ Introduction to Kubernetes<br/>
 
 .debug[
 ```
+ M slides/airgapped/Importing_Images.md
  M slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-k8s.yml.html
- M slides/kube-adv.yml.html
- M slides/kube-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/kube-twodays.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-video.yml.html
 
 ```
 
-These slides have been built from commit: 3bec906
+These slides have been built from commit: c4b7834
 
 
 [shared/title.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/title.md)]
diff --git a/slides/intro-fullday.yml.html b/slides/intro-fullday.yml.html
index 0c5a1d6..4bb59cd 100644
--- a/slides/intro-fullday.yml.html
+++ b/slides/intro-fullday.yml.html
@@ -29,24 +29,16 @@ Introduction<br/>to Containers<br/>
 
 .debug[
 ```
+ M slides/airgapped/Importing_Images.md
  M slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fd-k8s.yml.html
  M slides/intro-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-adv.yml.html
- M slides/kube-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/kube-twodays.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-video.yml.html
 
 ```
 
-These slides have been built from commit: 3bec906
+These slides have been built from commit: c4b7834
 
 
 [shared/title.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/title.md)]
diff --git a/slides/intro-selfpaced.yml.html b/slides/intro-selfpaced.yml.html
index b65d4aa..e69de29 100644
--- a/slides/intro-selfpaced.yml.html
+++ b/slides/intro-selfpaced.yml.html
@@ -1,14063 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html>
-<html>
-  <head>
-    <title>Introduction to Containers </title>
-    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/>
-    <link rel="stylesheet" href="workshop.css">
-  </head>
-  <body>
-    <!--
-    <div style="position: absolute; left: 20%; right: 20%; top: 30%;">
-      <h1 style="font-size: 3em;">Loading ...</h1>
-      The slides should show up here. If they don't, it might be
-      because you are accessing this file directly from your filesystem.
-      It needs to be served from a web server. You can try this:
-      <pre>
-        docker-compose up -d
-        open http://localhost:8888/workshop.html # on MacOS
-        xdg-open http://localhost:8888/workshop.html # on Linux
-      </pre>
-      Once the slides are loaded, this notice disappears when you
-      go full screen (e.g. by hitting "f").
-    </div>
-    -->
-    <textarea id="source">class: title, self-paced
-
-Introduction<br/>to Containers<br/>
-
-<!-- .nav[*Self-paced version*] -->
-
-.debug[
-```
- M slides/intro-container-security.yml.html
- M slides/intro-fd-docker.yml.html
- M slides/intro-fd-k8s-deployments.yml.html
- M slides/intro-fd-k8s.yml.html
- M slides/intro-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/intro-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/kube-adv.yml.html
- M slides/kube-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/kube-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/kube-twodays.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-fullday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-halfday.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-selfpaced.yml.html
- M slides/swarm-video.yml.html
-
-```
-
-These slides have been built from commit: 3bec906
-
-
-[shared/title.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/title.md)]
----
-
-class: title, in-person
-
-Introduction<br/>to Containers<br/><br/></br>
-
-.footnote[
-**Slides[:](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h16zyxiwDLY) https://container.training/**
-]
-
-<!--
-WiFi: **Something**<br/>
-Password: **Something**
-
-**Be kind to the WiFi!**<br/>
-*Use the 5G network.*
-*Don't use your hotspot.*<br/>
-*Don't stream videos or download big files during the workshop*<br/>
-*Thank you!*
--->
-
-.debug[[shared/title.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/title.md)]
----
-## A brief introduction
-
-- This was initially written to support in-person, instructor-led workshops and tutorials
-
-- These materials are maintained by [Jérôme Petazzoni](https://twitter.com/jpetazzo) and [multiple contributors](https://github.com/jpetazzo/container.training/graphs/contributors)
-
-- You can also follow along on your own, at your own pace
-
-- We included as much information as possible in these slides
-
-- We recommend having a mentor to help you ...
-
-- ... Or be comfortable spending some time reading the Docker
- [documentation](https://docs.docker.com/) ...
-
-- ... And looking for answers in the [Docker forums](https://forums.docker.com),
-  [StackOverflow](http://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/docker),
-  and other outlets
-
-.debug[[containers/intro.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/intro.md)]
----
-
-class: self-paced
-
-## Hands on, you shall practice
-
-- Nobody ever became a Jedi by spending their lives reading Wookiepedia
-
-- Likewise, it will take more than merely *reading* these slides
-  to make you an expert
-
-- These slides include *tons* of demos, exercises, and examples
-
-- They assume that you have access to a machine running Docker
-
-- If you are attending a workshop or tutorial:
-  <br/>you will be given specific instructions to access a cloud VM
-
-- If you are doing this on your own:
-  <br/>we will tell you how to install Docker or access a Docker environment
-
-.debug[[containers/intro.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/intro.md)]
----
-## Accessing these slides now
-
-- We recommend that you open these slides in your browser:
-
-  https://container.training/
-
-- Use arrows to move to next/previous slide
-
-  (up, down, left, right, page up, page down)
-
-- Type a slide number + ENTER to go to that slide
-
-- The slide number is also visible in the URL bar
-
-  (e.g. .../#123 for slide 123)
-
-.debug[[shared/about-slides.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/about-slides.md)]
----
-
-## Accessing these slides later
-
-- Slides will remain online so you can review them later if needed
-
-  (let's say we'll keep them online at least 1 year, how about that?)
-
-- You can download the slides using that URL:
-
-  https://container.training/slides.zip
-
-  (then open the file `intro-selfpaced.yml.html`)
-
-- You will find new versions of these slides on:
-
-  https://container.training/
-
-.debug[[shared/about-slides.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/about-slides.md)]
----
-
-## These slides are open source
-
-- You are welcome to use, re-use, share these slides
-
-- These slides are written in Markdown
-
-- The sources of these slides are available in a public GitHub repository:
-
-  https://github.com/jpetazzo/container.training
-
-- Typos? Mistakes? Questions? Feel free to hover over the bottom of the slide ...
-
-.footnote[👇 Try it! The source file will be shown and you can view it on GitHub and fork and edit it.]
-
-<!--
-.lab[
-```open https://github.com/jpetazzo/container.training/tree/master/slides/common/about-slides.md```
-]
--->
-
-.debug[[shared/about-slides.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/about-slides.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Extra details
-
-- This slide has a little magnifying glass in the top left corner
-
-- This magnifying glass indicates slides that provide extra details
-
-- Feel free to skip them if:
-
-  - you are in a hurry
-
-  - you are new to this and want to avoid cognitive overload
-
-  - you want only the most essential information
-
-- You can review these slides another time if you want, they'll be waiting for you ☺
-
-.debug[[shared/about-slides.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/about-slides.md)]
----
-
-name: toc-part-1
-
-## Part 1
-
-- [Docker 30,000ft overview](#toc-docker-ft-overview)
-
-- [History of containers ... and Docker](#toc-history-of-containers--and-docker)
-
-- [Our training environment](#toc-our-training-environment)
-
-- [Installing Docker](#toc-installing-docker)
-
-- [Our first containers](#toc-our-first-containers)
-
-- [Background containers](#toc-background-containers)
-
-- [Restarting and attaching to containers](#toc-restarting-and-attaching-to-containers)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-2
-
-## Part 2
-
-- [Understanding Docker images](#toc-understanding-docker-images)
-
-- [Building images interactively](#toc-building-images-interactively)
-
-- [Building Docker images with a Dockerfile](#toc-building-docker-images-with-a-dockerfile)
-
-- [`CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT`](#toc-cmd-and-entrypoint)
-
-- [Copying files during the build](#toc-copying-files-during-the-build)
-
-- [Exercise — writing Dockerfiles](#toc-exercise--writing-dockerfiles)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-3
-
-## Part 3
-
-- [Reducing image size](#toc-reducing-image-size)
-
-- [Multi-stage builds](#toc-multi-stage-builds)
-
-- [Publishing images to the Docker Hub](#toc-publishing-images-to-the-docker-hub)
-
-- [Tips for efficient Dockerfiles](#toc-tips-for-efficient-dockerfiles)
-
-- [Dockerfile examples](#toc-dockerfile-examples)
-
-- [Exercise — writing better Dockerfiles](#toc-exercise--writing-better-dockerfiles)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-4
-
-## Part 4
-
-- [Naming and inspecting containers](#toc-naming-and-inspecting-containers)
-
-- [Labels](#toc-labels)
-
-- [Getting inside a container](#toc-getting-inside-a-container)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-5
-
-## Part 5
-
-- [Container networking basics](#toc-container-networking-basics)
-
-- [Container network drivers](#toc-container-network-drivers)
-
-- [The Container Network Model](#toc-the-container-network-model)
-
-- [Service discovery with containers](#toc-service-discovery-with-containers)
-
-- [Ambassadors](#toc-ambassadors)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-6
-
-## Part 6
-
-- [Local development workflow with Docker](#toc-local-development-workflow-with-docker)
-
-- [Windows Containers](#toc-windows-containers)
-
-- [Working with volumes](#toc-working-with-volumes)
-
-- [Compose for development stacks](#toc-compose-for-development-stacks)
-
-- [Exercise — writing a Compose file](#toc-exercise--writing-a-compose-file)
-
-- [Managing hosts with Docker Machine](#toc-managing-hosts-with-docker-machine)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-7
-
-## Part 7
-
-- [Advanced Dockerfile Syntax](#toc-advanced-dockerfile-syntax)
-
-- [Buildkit](#toc-buildkit)
-
-- [Init systems and PID 1](#toc-init-systems-and-pid-)
-
-- [Application Configuration](#toc-application-configuration)
-
-- [Logging](#toc-logging)
-
-- [Limiting resources](#toc-limiting-resources)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-8
-
-## Part 8
-
-- [Deep dive into container internals](#toc-deep-dive-into-container-internals)
-
-- [Control groups](#toc-control-groups)
-
-- [Namespaces](#toc-namespaces)
-
-- [Security features](#toc-security-features)
-
-- [Copy-on-write filesystems](#toc-copy-on-write-filesystems)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
----
-name: toc-part-9
-
-## Part 9
-
-- [Docker Engine and other container engines](#toc-docker-engine-and-other-container-engines)
-
-- [Container Super-structure](#toc-container-super-structure)
-
-- [The container ecosystem](#toc-the-container-ecosystem)
-
-- [Orchestration, an overview](#toc-orchestration-an-overview)
-
-- [Links and resources](#toc-links-and-resources)
-
-
-.debug[(auto-generated TOC)]
-
-
-
-.debug[[shared/toc.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/toc.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/Container-Ship-Freighter-Navigation-Elbe-Romance-1782991.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-docker-ft-overview
-class: title
-
- Docker 30,000ft overview
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-1)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-history-of-containers--and-docker)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Docker 30,000ft overview
-
-In this lesson, we will learn about:
-
-* Why containers (non-technical elevator pitch)
-
-* Why containers (technical elevator pitch)
-
-* How Docker helps us to build, ship, and run
-
-* The history of containers
-
-We won't actually run Docker or containers in this chapter (yet!).
-
-Don't worry, we will get to that fast enough!
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Elevator pitch
-
-### (for your manager, your boss...)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## OK... Why the buzz around containers?
-
-* The software industry has changed
-
-* Before:
-  * monolithic applications
-  * long development cycles
-  * single environment
-  * slowly scaling up
-
-* Now:
-  * decoupled services
-  * fast, iterative improvements
-  * multiple environments
-  * quickly scaling out
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Deployment becomes very complex
-
-* Many different stacks:
-  * languages
-  * frameworks
-  * databases
-
-* Many different targets:
-  * individual development environments
-  * pre-production, QA, staging...
-  * production: on prem, cloud, hybrid
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## The deployment problem
-
-![problem](images/shipping-software-problem.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## The matrix from hell
-
-![matrix](images/shipping-matrix-from-hell.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## The parallel with the shipping industry
-
-![history](images/shipping-industry-problem.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Intermodal shipping containers
-
-![shipping](images/shipping-industry-solution.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## A new shipping ecosystem
-
-![shipeco](images/shipping-indsutry-results.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## A shipping container system for applications
-
-![shipapp](images/shipping-software-solution.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Eliminate the matrix from hell
-
-![elimatrix](images/shipping-matrix-solved.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Results
-
-* [Dev-to-prod reduced from 9 months to 15 minutes (ING)](
-  https://www.docker.com/sites/default/files/CS_ING_01.25.2015_1.pdf)
-
-* [Continuous integration job time reduced by more than 60% (BBC)](
-  https://www.docker.com/sites/default/files/CS_BBCNews_01.25.2015_1.pdf)
-
-* [Deploy 100 times a day instead of once a week (GILT)](
-  https://www.docker.com/sites/default/files/CS_Gilt%20Groupe_03.18.2015_0.pdf)
-
-* [70% infrastructure consolidation (MetLife)](
-  https://www.docker.com/customers/metlife-transforms-customer-experience-legacy-and-microservices-mashup)
-
-* [60% infrastructure consolidation (Intesa Sanpaolo)](
-  https://blog.docker.com/2017/11/intesa-sanpaolo-builds-resilient-foundation-banking-docker-enterprise-edition/)
-
-* [14x application density; 60% of legacy datacenter migrated in 4 months (GE Appliances)](
-  https://www.docker.com/customers/ge-uses-docker-enable-self-service-their-developers)
-
-* etc.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Elevator pitch
-
-### (for your fellow devs and ops)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Escape dependency hell
-
-1. Write installation instructions into an `INSTALL.txt` file
-
-2. Using this file, write an `install.sh` script that works *for you*
-
-3. Turn this file into a `Dockerfile`, test it on your machine
-
-4. If the Dockerfile builds on your machine, it will build *anywhere*
-
-5. Rejoice as you escape dependency hell and "works on my machine"
-
-Never again "worked in dev - ops problem now!"
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## On-board developers and contributors rapidly
-
-1. Write Dockerfiles for your application components
-
-2. Use pre-made images from the Docker Hub (mysql, redis...)
-
-3. Describe your stack with a Compose file
-
-4. On-board somebody with two commands:
-
-```bash
-git clone ...
-docker-compose up
-```
-
-With this, you can create development, integration, QA environments in minutes!
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Implement reliable CI easily
-
-1. Build test environment with a Dockerfile or Compose file
-
-2. For each test run, stage up a new container or stack
-
-3. Each run is now in a clean environment
-
-4. No pollution from previous tests
-
-Way faster and cheaper than creating VMs each time!
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Use container images as build artefacts
-
-1. Build your app from Dockerfiles
-
-2. Store the resulting images in a registry
-
-3. Keep them forever (or as long as necessary)
-
-4. Test those images in QA, CI, integration...
-
-5. Run the same images in production
-
-6. Something goes wrong? Rollback to previous image
-
-7. Investigating old regression? Old image has your back!
-
-Images contain all the libraries, dependencies, etc. needed to run the app.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Decouple "plumbing" from application logic
-
-1. Write your code to connect to named services ("db", "api"...)
-
-2. Use Compose to start your stack
-
-3. Docker will setup per-container DNS resolver for those names
-
-4. You can now scale, add load balancers, replication ... without changing your code
-
-Note: this is not covered in this intro level workshop!
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## What did Docker bring to the table?
-
-### Docker before/after
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Formats and APIs, before Docker
-
-* No standardized exchange format.
-  <br/>(No, a rootfs tarball is *not* a format!)
-
-* Containers are hard to use for developers.
-  <br/>(Where's the equivalent of `docker run debian`?)
-
-* As a result, they are *hidden* from the end users.
-
-* No re-usable components, APIs, tools.
-  <br/>(At best: VM abstractions, e.g. libvirt.)
-
-Analogy: 
-
-* Shipping containers are not just steel boxes.
-* They are steel boxes that are a standard size, with the same hooks and holes.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Formats and APIs, after Docker
-
-* Standardize the container format, because containers were not portable.
-
-* Make containers easy to use for developers.
-
-* Emphasis on re-usable components, APIs, ecosystem of standard tools.
-
-* Improvement over ad-hoc, in-house, specific tools.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Shipping, before Docker
-
-* Ship packages: deb, rpm, gem, jar, homebrew...
-
-* Dependency hell.
-
-* "Works on my machine."
-
-* Base deployment often done from scratch (debootstrap...) and unreliable.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Shipping, after Docker
-
-* Ship container images with all their dependencies.
-
-* Images are bigger, but they are broken down into layers.
-
-* Only ship layers that have changed.
-
-* Save disk, network, memory usage.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Example
-
-Layers:
-
-* CentOS
-* JRE
-* Tomcat
-* Dependencies
-* Application JAR
-* Configuration
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Devs vs Ops, before Docker
-
-* Drop a tarball (or a commit hash) with instructions.
-
-* Dev environment very different from production.
-
-* Ops don't always have a dev environment themselves ...
-
-* ... and when they do, it can differ from the devs'.
-
-* Ops have to sort out differences and make it work ...
-
-* ... or bounce it back to devs.
-
-* Shipping code causes frictions and delays.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Devs vs Ops, after Docker
-
-* Drop a container image or a Compose file.
-
-* Ops can always run that container image.
-
-* Ops can always run that Compose file.
-
-* Ops still have to adapt to prod environment,
-  but at least they have a reference point.
-
-* Ops have tools allowing to use the same image
-  in dev and prod.
-
-* Devs can be empowered to make releases themselves
-  more easily.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/ShippingContainerSFBay.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-history-of-containers--and-docker
-class: title
-
- History of containers ... and Docker
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-docker-ft-overview)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-1)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-our-training-environment)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# History of containers ... and Docker
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## First experimentations
-
-* [IBM VM/370 (1972)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VM_%28operating_system%29)
-
-* [Linux VServers (2001)](http://www.solucorp.qc.ca/changes.hc?projet=vserver)
-
-* [Solaris Containers (2004)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_Containers)
-
-* [FreeBSD jails (1999-2000)](https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=jail&sektion=8&manpath=FreeBSD+4.0-RELEASE)
-
-Containers have been around for a *very long time* indeed.
-
-(See [this excellent blog post by Serge Hallyn](https://s3hh.wordpress.com/2018/03/22/history-of-containers/) for more historic details.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## The VPS age (until 2007-2008)
-
-![lightcont](images/containers-as-lightweight-vms.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## Containers = cheaper than VMs
-
-* Users: hosting providers.
-
-* Highly specialized audience with strong ops culture.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## The PAAS period (2008-2013)
-
-![heroku 2007](images/heroku-first-homepage.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## Containers = easier than VMs
-
-* I can't speak for Heroku, but containers were (one of) dotCloud's secret weapon
-
-* dotCloud was operating a PaaS, using a custom container engine.
-
-* This engine was based on OpenVZ (and later, LXC) and AUFS.
-
-* It started (circa 2008) as a single Python script.
-
-* By 2012, the engine had multiple (~10) Python components.
-  <br/>(and ~100 other micro-services!)
-
-* End of 2012, dotCloud refactors this container engine.
-
-* The codename for this project is "Docker."
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## First public release of Docker
-
-* March 2013, PyCon, Santa Clara:
-  <br/>"Docker" is shown to a public audience for the first time.
-
-* It is released with an open source license.
-
-* Very positive reactions and feedback!
-
-* The dotCloud team progressively shifts to Docker development.
-
-* The same year, dotCloud changes name to Docker.
-
-* In 2014, the PaaS activity is sold.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## Docker early days (2013-2014)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## First users of Docker
-
-* PAAS builders (Flynn, Dokku, Tsuru, Deis...)
-
-* PAAS users (those big enough to justify building their own)
-
-* CI platforms
-
-* developers, developers, developers, developers
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## Positive feedback loop
-
-* In 2013, the technology under containers (cgroups, namespaces, copy-on-write storage...)
-  had many blind spots.
-
-* The growing popularity of Docker and containers exposed many bugs.
-
-* As a result, those bugs were fixed, resulting in better stability for containers.
-
-* Any decent hosting/cloud provider can run containers today.
-
-* Containers become a great tool to deploy/move workloads to/from on-prem/cloud.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## Maturity (2015-2016)
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## Docker becomes an industry standard
-
-* Docker reaches the symbolic 1.0 milestone.
-
-* Existing systems like Mesos and Cloud Foundry add Docker support.
-
-* Standardization around the OCI (Open Containers Initiative).
-
-* Other container engines are developed.
-
-* Creation of the CNCF (Cloud Native Computing Foundation).
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-## Docker becomes a platform
-
-* The initial container engine is now known as "Docker Engine."
-
-* Other tools are added:
-  * Docker Compose (formerly "Fig")
-  * Docker Machine
-  * Docker Swarm
-  * Kitematic
-  * Docker Cloud (formerly "Tutum")
-  * Docker Datacenter
-  * etc.
-
-* Docker Inc. launches commercial offers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_History.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_History.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/aerial-view-of-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-our-training-environment
-class: title
-
- Our training environment
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-history-of-containers--and-docker)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-1)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-installing-docker)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Our training environment
-
-![SSH terminal](images/title-our-training-environment.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-## Our training environment
-
-- If you are attending a tutorial or workshop:
-
-  - a VM has been provisioned for each student
-
-- If you are doing or re-doing this course on your own, you can:
-
-  - install Docker locally (as explained in the chapter "Installing Docker")
-
-  - install Docker on e.g. a cloud VM
-
-  - use https://www.play-with-docker.com/ to instantly get a training environment
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-## Our Docker VM
-
-*This section assumes that you are following this course as part of
-a tutorial, training or workshop, where each student is given an
-individual Docker VM.*
-
-- The VM is created just before the training.
-
-- It will stay up during the whole training.
-
-- It will be destroyed shortly after the training.
-
-- It comes pre-loaded with Docker and some other useful tools.
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-## What *is* Docker?
-
-- "Installing Docker" really means "Installing the Docker Engine and CLI".
-
-- The Docker Engine is a daemon (a service running in the background).
-
-- This daemon manages containers, the same way that a hypervisor manages VMs.
-
-- We interact with the Docker Engine by using the Docker CLI.
-
-- The Docker CLI and the Docker Engine communicate through an API.
-
-- There are many other programs and client libraries which use that API.
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-## Why don't we run Docker locally?
-
-- We are going to download container images and distribution packages.
-
-- This could put a bit of stress on the local WiFi and slow us down.
-
-- Instead, we use a remote VM that has a good connectivity
-
-- In some rare cases, installing Docker locally is challenging:
-
-  - no administrator/root access (computer managed by strict corp IT)
-
-  - 32-bit CPU or OS
-
-  - old OS version (e.g. CentOS 6, OSX pre-Yosemite, Windows 7)
-
-- It's better to spend time learning containers than fiddling with the installer!
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-## Connecting to your Virtual Machine
-
-You need an SSH client.
-
-* On OS X, Linux, and other UNIX systems, just use `ssh`:
-
-```bash
-$ ssh <login>@<ip-address>
-```
-
-* On Windows, if you don't have an SSH client, you can download:
-
-  * Putty (www.putty.org)
-
-  * Git BASH (https://git-for-windows.github.io/)
-
-  * MobaXterm (https://mobaxterm.mobatek.net/)
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-class: in-person
-
-## `tailhist`
-
-The shell history of the instructor is available online in real time.
-
-Note the IP address of the instructor's virtual machine (A.B.C.D).
-
-Open http://A.B.C.D:1088 in your browser and you should see the history.
-
-The history is updated in real time (using a WebSocket connection).
-
-It should be green when the WebSocket is connected.
-
-If it turns red, reloading the page should fix it.
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-## Checking your Virtual Machine
-
-Once logged in, make sure that you can run a basic Docker command:
-
-.small[
-```bash
-$ docker version
-Client:
- Version:       18.03.0-ce
- API version:   1.37
- Go version:    go1.9.4
- Git commit:    0520e24
- Built:         Wed Mar 21 23:10:06 2018
- OS/Arch:       linux/amd64
- Experimental:  false
- Orchestrator:  swarm
-
-Server:
- Engine:
-  Version:      18.03.0-ce
-  API version:  1.37 (minimum version 1.12)
-  Go version:   go1.9.4
-  Git commit:   0520e24
-  Built:        Wed Mar 21 23:08:35 2018
-  OS/Arch:      linux/amd64
-  Experimental: false
-```
-]
-
-If this doesn't work, raise your hand so that an instructor can assist you!
-
-???
-
-:EN:Container concepts
-:FR:Premier contact avec les conteneurs
-
-:EN:- What's a container engine?
-:FR:- Qu'est-ce qu'un *container engine* ?
-
-.debug[[containers/Training_Environment.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Training_Environment.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/blue-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-installing-docker
-class: title
-
- Installing Docker
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-our-training-environment)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-1)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-our-first-containers)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Installing Docker
-
-![install](images/title-installing-docker.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-At the end of this lesson, you will know:
-
-* How to install Docker.
-
-* When to use `sudo` when running Docker commands.
-
-*Note:* if you were provided with a training VM for a hands-on
-tutorial, you can skip this chapter, since that VM already
-has Docker installed, and Docker has already been setup to run
-without `sudo`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-## Installing Docker
-
-There are many ways to install Docker.
-
-We can arbitrarily distinguish:
-
-* Installing Docker on an existing Linux machine (physical or VM)
-
-* Installing Docker on macOS or Windows
-
-* Installing Docker on a fleet of cloud VMs
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-## Installing Docker on Linux
-
-* The recommended method is to install the packages supplied by Docker Inc :
-
-  - add Docker Inc.'s package repositories to your system configuration
-
-  - install the Docker Engine
-
-* Detailed installation instructions (distro by distro) are available on:
-
-  https://docs.docker.com/engine/installation/
-
-* You can also install from binaries (if your distro is not supported):
-
-  https://docs.docker.com/engine/installation/linux/docker-ce/binaries/
-
-* To quickly setup a dev environment, Docker provides a convenience install script:
-
-  ```bash
-  curl -fsSL get.docker.com | sh
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Docker Inc. packages vs distribution packages
-
-* Docker Inc. releases new versions monthly (edge) and quarterly (stable)
-
-* Releases are immediately available on Docker Inc.'s package repositories
-
-* Linux distros don't always update to the latest Docker version
-
-  (Sometimes, updating would break their guidelines for major/minor upgrades)
-
-* Sometimes, some distros have carried packages with custom patches
-
-* Sometimes, these patches added critical security bugs ☹
-
-* Installing through Docker Inc.'s repositories is a bit of extra work …
-
-  … but it is generally worth it!
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-## Installing Docker on macOS and Windows
-
-* On macOS, the recommended method is to use Docker Desktop for Mac:
-
-  https://docs.docker.com/docker-for-mac/install/
-
-* On Windows 10 Pro, Enterprise, and Education, you can use Docker Desktop for Windows:
-
-  https://docs.docker.com/docker-for-windows/install/
-
-* On older versions of Windows, you can use the Docker Toolbox:
-
-  https://docs.docker.com/toolbox/toolbox_install_windows/
-
-* On Windows Server 2016, you can also install the native engine:
-
-  https://docs.docker.com/install/windows/docker-ee/
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-## Docker Desktop
-
-* Special Docker edition available for Mac and Windows
-
-* Integrates well with the host OS:
-
-  * installed like normal user applications on the host
-
-  * provides user-friendly GUI to edit Docker configuration and settings
-
-* Only support running one Docker VM at a time ...
-
-  ... but we can use `docker-machine`, the Docker Toolbox, VirtualBox, etc. to get a cluster.
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Docker Desktop internals
-
-* Leverages the host OS virtualization subsystem
-
-  (e.g. the [Hypervisor API](https://developer.apple.com/documentation/hypervisor) on macOS)
-
-* Under the hood, runs a tiny VM
-
-  (transparent to our daily use)
-
-* Accesses network resources like normal applications
-
-  (and therefore, plays better with enterprise VPNs and firewalls)
-
-* Supports filesystem sharing through volumes
-
-  (we'll talk about this later)
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-## Running Docker on macOS and Windows
-
-When you execute `docker version` from the terminal:
-
-* the CLI connects to the Docker Engine over a standard socket,
-* the Docker Engine is, in fact, running in a VM,
-* ... but the CLI doesn't know or care about that,
-* the CLI sends a request using the REST API,
-* the Docker Engine in the VM processes the request,
-* the CLI gets the response and displays it to you.
-
-All communication with the Docker Engine happens over the API.
-
-This will also allow to use remote Engines exactly as if they were local.
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-## Important PSA about security
-
-* If you have access to the Docker control socket, you can take over the machine
-
-  (Because you can run containers that will access the machine's resources)
-
-* Therefore, on Linux machines, the `docker` user is equivalent to `root`
-
-* You should restrict access to it like you would protect `root`
-
-* By default, the Docker control socket belongs to the `docker` group
-
-* You can add trusted users to the `docker` group
-
-* Otherwise, you will have to prefix every `docker` command with `sudo`, e.g.:
-
-  ```bash
-  sudo docker version
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Installing_Docker.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Installing_Docker.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/chinook-helicopter-container.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-our-first-containers
-class: title
-
- Our first containers
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-installing-docker)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-1)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-background-containers)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Our first containers
-
-![Colorful plastic tubs](images/title-our-first-containers.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-At the end of this lesson, you will have:
-
-* Seen Docker in action.
-
-* Started your first containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Hello World
-
-In your Docker environment, just run the following command:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run busybox echo hello world
-hello world
-```
-
-(If your Docker install is brand new, you will also see a few extra lines,
-corresponding to the download of the `busybox` image.)
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## That was our first container!
-
-* We used one of the smallest, simplest images available: `busybox`.
-
-* `busybox` is typically used in embedded systems (phones, routers...)
-
-* We ran a single process and echo'ed `hello world`.
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## A more useful container
-
-Let's run a more exciting container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it ubuntu
-root@04c0bb0a6c07:/#
-```
-
-* This is a brand new container.
-
-* It runs a bare-bones, no-frills `ubuntu` system.
-
-* `-it` is shorthand for `-i -t`.
-
-  * `-i` tells Docker to connect us to the container's stdin.
-
-  * `-t` tells Docker that we want a pseudo-terminal.
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Do something in our container
-
-Try to run `figlet` in our container.
-
-```bash
-root@04c0bb0a6c07:/# figlet hello
-bash: figlet: command not found
-```
-
-Alright, we need to install it.
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Install a package in our container
-
-We want `figlet`, so let's install it:
-
-```bash
-root@04c0bb0a6c07:/# apt-get update
-...
-Fetched 1514 kB in 14s (103 kB/s)
-Reading package lists... Done
-root@04c0bb0a6c07:/# apt-get install figlet
-Reading package lists... Done
-...
-```
-
-One minute later, `figlet` is installed!
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Try to run our freshly installed program
-
-The `figlet` program takes a message as parameter.
-
-```bash
-root@04c0bb0a6c07:/# figlet hello
- _          _ _       
-| |__   ___| | | ___  
-| '_ \ / _ \ | |/ _ \ 
-| | | |  __/ | | (_) |
-|_| |_|\___|_|_|\___/ 
-```
-
-Beautiful! 😍
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-class: in-person
-
-## Counting packages in the container
-
-Let's check how many packages are installed there.
-
-```bash
-root@04c0bb0a6c07:/# dpkg -l | wc -l
-97
-```
-
-* `dpkg -l` lists the packages installed in our container
-
-* `wc -l` counts them
-
-How many packages do we have on our host?
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-class: in-person
-
-## Counting packages on the host
-
-Exit the container by logging out of the shell, like you would usually do.
-
-(E.g. with `^D` or `exit`)
-
-```bash
-root@04c0bb0a6c07:/# exit
-```
-
-Now, try to:
-
-* run `dpkg -l | wc -l`. How many packages are installed?
-
-* run `figlet`. Does that work?
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-class: self-paced
-
-## Comparing the container and the host
-
-Exit the container by logging out of the shell, with `^D` or `exit`.
-
-Now try to run `figlet`. Does that work?
-
-(It shouldn't; except if, by coincidence, you are running on a machine where figlet was installed before.)
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Host and containers are independent things
-
-* We ran an `ubuntu` container on an Linux/Windows/macOS host.
-
-* They have different, independent packages.
-
-* Installing something on the host doesn't expose it to the container.
-
-* And vice-versa.
-
-* Even if both the host and the container have the same Linux distro!
-
-* We can run *any container* on *any host*.
-
-  (One exception: Windows containers can only run on Windows hosts; at least for now.)
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Where's our container?
-
-* Our container is now in a *stopped* state.
-
-* It still exists on disk, but all compute resources have been freed up.
-
-* We will see later how to get back to that container.
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Starting another container
-
-What if we start a new container, and try to run `figlet` again?
- 
-```bash
-$ docker run -it ubuntu
-root@b13c164401fb:/# figlet
-bash: figlet: command not found
-```
-
-* We started a *brand new container*.
-
-* The basic Ubuntu image was used, and `figlet` is not here.
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Where's my container?
-
-* Can we reuse that container that we took time to customize?
-
-  *We can, but that's not the default workflow with Docker.*
-
-* What's the default workflow, then?
-
-  *Always start with a fresh container.*
-  <br/>
-  *If we need something installed in our container, build a custom image.*
-
-* That seems complicated!
-
-  *We'll see that it's actually pretty easy!*
-
-* And what's the point?
-
-  *This puts a strong emphasis on automation and repeatability. Let's see why ...*
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Pets vs. Cattle
-
-* In the "pets vs. cattle" metaphor, there are two kinds of servers.
-
-* Pets:
-
-  * have distinctive names and unique configurations
-
-  * when they have an outage, we do everything we can to fix them
-
-* Cattle:
-
-  * have generic names (e.g. with numbers) and generic configuration
-
-  * configuration is enforced by configuration management, golden images ...
-
-  * when they have an outage, we can replace them immediately with a new server
-
-* What's the connection with Docker and containers?
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Local development environments
-
-* When we use local VMs (with e.g. VirtualBox or VMware), our workflow looks like this:
-
-  * create VM from base template (Ubuntu, CentOS...)
-
-  * install packages, set up environment
-
-  * work on project
-
-  * when done, shut down VM
-
-  * next time we need to work on project, restart VM as we left it
-
-  * if we need to tweak the environment, we do it live
-
-* Over time, the VM configuration evolves, diverges.
-
-* We don't have a clean, reliable, deterministic way to provision that environment.
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Local development with Docker
-
-* With Docker, the workflow looks like this:
-
-  * create container image with our dev environment
-
-  * run container with that image
-
-  * work on project
-
-  * when done, shut down container
-
-  * next time we need to work on project, start a new container
-
-  * if we need to tweak the environment, we create a new image
-
-* We have a clear definition of our environment, and can share it reliably with others.
-
-* Let's see in the next chapters how to bake a custom image with `figlet`!
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Running our first container
-:FR:- Lancer nos premiers conteneurs
-
-.debug[[containers/First_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/First_Containers.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/container-cranes.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-background-containers
-class: title
-
- Background containers
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-our-first-containers)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-1)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-restarting-and-attaching-to-containers)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Background containers
-
-![Background containers](images/title-background-containers.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-Our first containers were *interactive*.
-
-We will now see how to:
-
-* Run a non-interactive container.
-* Run a container in the background.
-* List running containers.
-* Check the logs of a container.
-* Stop a container.
-* List stopped containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## A non-interactive container
-
-We will run a small custom container.
-
-This container just displays the time every second.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run jpetazzo/clock
-Fri Feb 20 00:28:53 UTC 2015
-Fri Feb 20 00:28:54 UTC 2015
-Fri Feb 20 00:28:55 UTC 2015
-...
-```
-
-* This container will run forever.
-* To stop it, press `^C`.
-* Docker has automatically downloaded the image `jpetazzo/clock`.
-* This image is a user image, created by `jpetazzo`.
-* We will hear more about user images (and other types of images) later.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## When `^C` doesn't work...
-
-Sometimes, `^C` won't be enough.
-
-Why? And how can we stop the container in that case?
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## What happens when we hit `^C`
-
-`SIGINT` gets sent to the container, which means:
-
-- `SIGINT` gets sent to PID 1 (default case)
-
-- `SIGINT` gets sent to *foreground processes* when running with `-ti`
-
-But there is a special case for PID 1: it ignores all signals!
-
-- except `SIGKILL` and `SIGSTOP`
-
-- except signals handled explicitly
-
-TL,DR: there are many circumstances when `^C` won't stop the container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Why is PID 1 special?
-
-- PID 1 has some extra responsibilities:
-
-  - it starts (directly or indirectly) every other process
-
-  - when a process exits, its processes are "reparented" under PID 1
-
-- When PID 1 exits, everything stops:
-
-  - on a "regular" machine, it causes a kernel panic
-
-  - in a container, it kills all the processes
-
-- We don't want PID 1 to stop accidentally
-
-- That's why it has these extra protections
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## How to stop these containers, then?
-
-- Start another terminal and forget about them
-
-  (for now!)
-
-- We'll shortly learn about `docker kill`
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Run a container in the background
-
-Containers can be started in the background, with the `-d` flag (daemon mode):
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d jpetazzo/clock
-47d677dcfba4277c6cc68fcaa51f932b544cab1a187c853b7d0caf4e8debe5ad
-```
-
-* We don't see the output of the container.
-* But don't worry: Docker collects that output and logs it!
-* Docker gives us the ID of the container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## List running containers
-
-How can we check that our container is still running?
-
-With `docker ps`, just like the UNIX `ps` command, lists running processes.
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps
-CONTAINER ID  IMAGE           ...  CREATED        STATUS        ...
-47d677dcfba4  jpetazzo/clock  ...  2 minutes ago  Up 2 minutes  ...
-```
-
-Docker tells us:
-
-* The (truncated) ID of our container.
-* The image used to start the container.
-* That our container has been running (`Up`) for a couple of minutes.
-* Other information (COMMAND, PORTS, NAMES) that we will explain later.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Starting more containers
-
-Let's start two more containers.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d jpetazzo/clock
-57ad9bdfc06bb4407c47220cf59ce21585dce9a1298d7a67488359aeaea8ae2a
-```
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d jpetazzo/clock
-068cc994ffd0190bbe025ba74e4c0771a5d8f14734af772ddee8dc1aaf20567d
-```
-
-Check that `docker ps` correctly reports all 3 containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Viewing only the last container started
-
-When many containers are already running, it can be useful to
-see only the last container that was started.
-
-This can be achieved with the `-l` ("Last") flag:
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -l
-CONTAINER ID  IMAGE           ...  CREATED        STATUS        ...
-068cc994ffd0  jpetazzo/clock  ...  2 minutes ago  Up 2 minutes  ...
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## View only the IDs of the containers
-
-Many Docker commands will work on container IDs: `docker stop`, `docker rm`...
-
-If we want to list only the IDs of our containers (without the other columns
-or the header line),
-we can use the `-q` ("Quiet", "Quick") flag:
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -q
-068cc994ffd0
-57ad9bdfc06b
-47d677dcfba4
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Combining flags
-
-We can combine `-l` and `-q` to see only the ID of the last container started:
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -lq
-068cc994ffd0
-```
-
-At a first glance, it looks like this would be particularly useful in scripts.
-
-However, if we want to start a container and get its ID in a reliable way,
-it is better to use `docker run -d`, which we will cover in a bit.
-
-(Using `docker ps -lq` is prone to race conditions: what happens if someone
-else, or another program or script, starts another container just before
-we run `docker ps -lq`?)
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## View the logs of a container
-
-We told you that Docker was logging the container output.
-
-Let's see that now.
-
-```bash
-$ docker logs 068
-Fri Feb 20 00:39:52 UTC 2015
-Fri Feb 20 00:39:53 UTC 2015
-...
-```
-
-* We specified a *prefix* of the full container ID.
-* You can, of course, specify the full ID.
-* The `logs` command will output the *entire* logs of the container.
-  <br/>(Sometimes, that will be too much. Let's see how to address that.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## View only the tail of the logs
-
-To avoid being spammed with eleventy pages of output,
-we can use the `--tail` option:
-
-```bash
-$ docker logs --tail 3 068
-Fri Feb 20 00:55:35 UTC 2015
-Fri Feb 20 00:55:36 UTC 2015
-Fri Feb 20 00:55:37 UTC 2015
-```
-
-* The parameter is the number of lines that we want to see.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Follow the logs in real time
-
-Just like with the standard UNIX command `tail -f`, we can
-follow the logs of our container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker logs --tail 1 --follow 068
-Fri Feb 20 00:57:12 UTC 2015
-Fri Feb 20 00:57:13 UTC 2015
-^C
-```
-
-* This will display the last line in the log file.
-* Then, it will continue to display the logs in real time.
-* Use `^C` to exit.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Stop our container
-
-There are two ways we can terminate our detached container.
-
-* Killing it using the `docker kill` command.
-* Stopping it using the `docker stop` command.
-
-The first one stops the container immediately, by using the
-`KILL` signal.
-
-The second one is more graceful. It sends a `TERM` signal,
-and after 10 seconds, if the container has not stopped, it
-sends `KILL.`
-
-Reminder: the `KILL` signal cannot be intercepted, and will
-forcibly terminate the container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Stopping our containers
-
-Let's stop one of those containers:
-
-```bash
-$ docker stop 47d6
-47d6
-```
-
-This will take 10 seconds:
-
-* Docker sends the TERM signal;
-* the container doesn't react to this signal
-  (it's a simple Shell script with no special
-  signal handling);
-* 10 seconds later, since the container is still
-  running, Docker sends the KILL signal;
-* this terminates the container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Killing the remaining containers
-
-Let's be less patient with the two other containers:
-
-```bash
-$ docker kill 068 57ad
-068
-57ad
-```
-
-The `stop` and `kill` commands can take multiple container IDs.
-
-Those containers will be terminated immediately (without
-the 10-second delay).
-
-Let's check that our containers don't show up anymore:
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## List stopped containers
-
-We can also see stopped containers, with the `-a` (`--all`) option.
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -a
-CONTAINER ID  IMAGE           ...  CREATED      STATUS
-068cc994ffd0  jpetazzo/clock  ...  21 min. ago  Exited (137) 3 min. ago
-57ad9bdfc06b  jpetazzo/clock  ...  21 min. ago  Exited (137) 3 min. ago
-47d677dcfba4  jpetazzo/clock  ...  23 min. ago  Exited (137) 3 min. ago
-5c1dfd4d81f1  jpetazzo/clock  ...  40 min. ago  Exited (0) 40 min. ago
-b13c164401fb  ubuntu          ...  55 min. ago  Exited (130) 53 min. ago
-```
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Foreground and background containers
-:FR:- Exécution interactive ou en arrière-plan
-
-.debug[[containers/Background_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Background_Containers.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/container-housing.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-restarting-and-attaching-to-containers
-class: title
-
- Restarting and attaching to containers
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-background-containers)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-1)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-understanding-docker-images)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Restarting and attaching to containers
-
-We have started containers in the foreground, and in the background.
-
-In this chapter, we will see how to:
-
-* Put a container in the background.
-* Attach to a background container to bring it to the foreground.
-* Restart a stopped container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-## Background and foreground
-
-The distinction between foreground and background containers is arbitrary.
-
-From Docker's point of view, all containers are the same.
-
-All containers run the same way, whether there is a client attached to them or not.
-
-It is always possible to detach from a container, and to reattach to a container.
-
-Analogy: attaching to a container is like plugging a keyboard and screen to a physical server.
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-## Detaching from a container (Linux/macOS)
-
-* If you have started an *interactive* container (with option `-it`), you can detach from it.
-
-* The "detach" sequence is `^P^Q`.
-
-* Otherwise you can detach by killing the Docker client.
-  
-  (But not by hitting `^C`, as this would deliver `SIGINT` to the container.)
-
-What does `-it` stand for?
-
-* `-t` means "allocate a terminal."
-* `-i` means "connect stdin to the terminal."
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-## Detaching cont. (Win PowerShell and cmd.exe)
-
-* Docker for Windows has a different detach experience due to shell features.
-
-* `^P^Q` does not work.
-
-* `^C` will detach, rather than stop the container.
-
-* Using Bash, Subsystem for Linux, etc. on Windows behaves like Linux/macOS shells.
-
-* Both PowerShell and Bash work well in Win 10; just be aware of differences.
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Specifying a custom detach sequence
-
-* You don't like `^P^Q`? No problem!
-* You can change the sequence with `docker run --detach-keys`.
-* This can also be passed as a global option to the engine.
-
-Start a container with a custom detach command:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -ti --detach-keys ctrl-x,x jpetazzo/clock
-```
-
-Detach by hitting `^X x`. (This is ctrl-x then x, not ctrl-x twice!)
-
-Check that our container is still running:
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -l
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Attaching to a container
-
-You can attach to a container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker attach <containerID>
-```
-
-* The container must be running.
-* There *can* be multiple clients attached to the same container.
-* If you don't specify `--detach-keys` when attaching, it defaults back to `^P^Q`.
-
-Try it on our previous container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker attach $(docker ps -lq)
-```
-
-Check that `^X x` doesn't work, but `^P ^Q` does.
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-## Detaching from non-interactive containers
-
-* **Warning:** if the container was started without `-it`...
-
-  * You won't be able to detach with `^P^Q`.
-  * If you hit `^C`, the signal will be proxied to the container.
-
-* Remember: you can always detach by killing the Docker client.
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-## Checking container output
-
-* Use `docker attach` if you intend to send input to the container.
-
-* If you just want to see the output of a container, use `docker logs`.
-
-```bash
-$ docker logs --tail 1 --follow <containerID>
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-## Restarting a container
-
-When a container has exited, it is in stopped state.
-
-It can then be restarted with the `start` command.
-
-```bash
-$ docker start <yourContainerID>
-```
-
-The container will be restarted using the same options you launched it
-with.
-
-You can re-attach to it if you want to interact with it:
-
-```bash
-$ docker attach <yourContainerID>
-```
-
-Use `docker ps -a` to identify the container ID of a previous `jpetazzo/clock` container,
-and try those commands.
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-## Attaching to a REPL
-
-* REPL = Read Eval Print Loop
-
-* Shells, interpreters, TUI ...
-
-* Symptom: you `docker attach`, and see nothing
-
-* The REPL doesn't know that you just attached, and doesn't print anything
-
-* Try hitting `^L` or `Enter`
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## SIGWINCH
-
-* When you `docker attach`, the Docker Engine sends SIGWINCH signals to the container.
-
-* SIGWINCH = WINdow CHange; indicates a change in window size.
-
-* This will cause some CLI and TUI programs to redraw the screen.
-
-* But not all of them.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Restarting old containers
-:EN:- Detaching and reattaching to container
-:FR:- Redémarrer des anciens conteneurs
-:FR:- Se détacher et rattacher à des conteneurs
-
-.debug[[containers/Start_And_Attach.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Start_And_Attach.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/containers-by-the-water.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-understanding-docker-images
-class: title
-
- Understanding Docker images
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-restarting-and-attaching-to-containers)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-2)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-building-images-interactively)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Understanding Docker images
-
-![image](images/title-understanding-docker-images.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-In this section, we will explain:
-
-* What is an image.
-
-* What is a layer.
-
-* The various image namespaces.
-
-* How to search and download images.
-
-* Image tags and when to use them.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## What is an image?
-
-* Image = files + metadata
-
-* These files form the root filesystem of our container.
-
-* The metadata can indicate a number of things, e.g.:
-
-  * the author of the image
-  * the command to execute in the container when starting it
-  * environment variables to be set
-  * etc.
-
-* Images are made of *layers*, conceptually stacked on top of each other.
-
-* Each layer can add, change, and remove files and/or metadata.
-
-* Images can share layers to optimize disk usage, transfer times, and memory use.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Example for a Java webapp
-
-Each of the following items will correspond to one layer:
-
-* CentOS base layer
-* Packages and configuration files added by our local IT
-* JRE
-* Tomcat
-* Our application's dependencies
-* Our application code and assets
-* Our application configuration
-
-(Note: app config is generally added by orchestration facilities.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## The read-write layer
-
-![layers](images/container-layers.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Differences between containers and images
-
-* An image is a read-only filesystem.
-
-* A container is an encapsulated set of processes,
-
-  running in a read-write copy of that filesystem.
-
-* To optimize container boot time, *copy-on-write* is used
-  instead of regular copy.
-
-* `docker run` starts a container from a given image.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Multiple containers sharing the same image
-
-![layers](images/sharing-layers.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Comparison with object-oriented programming
-
-* Images are conceptually similar to *classes*.
-
-* Layers are conceptually similar to *inheritance*.
-
-* Containers are conceptually similar to *instances*.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Wait a minute...
-
-If an image is read-only, how do we change it?
-
-* We don't.
-
-* We create a new container from that image.
-
-* Then we make changes to that container.
-
-* When we are satisfied with those changes, we transform them into a new layer.
-
-* A new image is created by stacking the new layer on top of the old image.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## A chicken-and-egg problem
-
-* The only way to create an image is by "freezing" a container.
-
-* The only way to create a container is by instantiating an image.
-
-* Help!
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Creating the first images
-
-There is a special empty image called `scratch`.
-
-* It allows to *build from scratch*.
-
-The `docker import` command loads a tarball into Docker.
-
-* The imported tarball becomes a standalone image.
-* That new image has a single layer.
-
-Note: you will probably never have to do this yourself.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Creating other images
-
-`docker commit`
-
-* Saves all the changes made to a container into a new layer.
-* Creates a new image (effectively a copy of the container).
-
-`docker build` **(used 99% of the time)**
-
-* Performs a repeatable build sequence.
-* This is the preferred method!
-
-We will explain both methods in a moment.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Images namespaces
-
-There are three namespaces:
-
-* Official images
-
-    e.g. `ubuntu`, `busybox` ...
-
-* User (and organizations) images
-
-    e.g. `jpetazzo/clock`
-
-* Self-hosted images
-
-    e.g. `registry.example.com:5000/my-private/image`
-
-Let's explain each of them.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Root namespace
-
-The root namespace is for official images.
-
-They are gated by Docker Inc.
-
-They are generally authored and maintained by third parties.
-
-Those images include:
-
-* Small, "swiss-army-knife" images like busybox.
-
-* Distro images to be used as bases for your builds, like ubuntu, fedora...
-
-* Ready-to-use components and services, like redis, postgresql...
-
-* Over 150 at this point!
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## User namespace
-
-The user namespace holds images for Docker Hub users and organizations.
-
-For example:
-
-```bash
-jpetazzo/clock
-```
-
-The Docker Hub user is:
-
-```bash
-jpetazzo
-```
-
-The image name is:
-
-```bash
-clock
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Self-hosted namespace
-
-This namespace holds images which are not hosted on Docker Hub, but on third
-party registries.
-
-They contain the hostname (or IP address), and optionally the port, of the
-registry server.
-
-For example:
-
-```bash
-localhost:5000/wordpress
-```
-
-* `localhost:5000` is the host and port of the registry
-* `wordpress` is the name of the image
-
-Other examples:
-
-```bash
-quay.io/coreos/etcd
-gcr.io/google-containers/hugo
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## How do you store and manage images?
-
-Images can be stored:
-
-* On your Docker host.
-* In a Docker registry.
-
-You can use the Docker client to download (pull) or upload (push) images.
-
-To be more accurate: you can use the Docker client to tell a Docker Engine
-to push and pull images to and from a registry.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Showing current images
-
-Let's look at what images are on our host now.
-
-```bash
-$ docker images
-REPOSITORY       TAG       IMAGE ID       CREATED         SIZE
-fedora           latest    ddd5c9c1d0f2   3 days ago      204.7 MB
-centos           latest    d0e7f81ca65c   3 days ago      196.6 MB
-ubuntu           latest    07c86167cdc4   4 days ago      188 MB
-redis            latest    4f5f397d4b7c   5 days ago      177.6 MB
-postgres         latest    afe2b5e1859b   5 days ago      264.5 MB
-alpine           latest    70c557e50ed6   5 days ago      4.798 MB
-debian           latest    f50f9524513f   6 days ago      125.1 MB
-busybox          latest    3240943c9ea3   2 weeks ago     1.114 MB
-training/namer   latest    902673acc741   9 months ago    289.3 MB
-jpetazzo/clock   latest    12068b93616f   12 months ago   2.433 MB
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Searching for images
-
-We cannot list *all* images on a remote registry, but
-we can search for a specific keyword:
-
-```bash
-$ docker search marathon
-NAME                     DESCRIPTION                     STARS  OFFICIAL  AUTOMATED
-mesosphere/marathon      A cluster-wide init and co...   105              [OK]
-mesoscloud/marathon      Marathon                        31               [OK]
-mesosphere/marathon-lb   Script to update haproxy b...   22               [OK]
-tobilg/mongodb-marathon  A Docker image to start a ...   4                [OK]
-```
-
-
-* "Stars" indicate the popularity of the image.
-
-* "Official" images are those in the root namespace.
-
-* "Automated" images are built automatically by the Docker Hub.
-  <br/>(This means that their build recipe is always available.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Downloading images
-
-There are two ways to download images.
-
-* Explicitly, with `docker pull`.
-
-* Implicitly, when executing `docker run` and the image is not found locally.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Pulling an image
-
-```bash
-$ docker pull debian:jessie
-Pulling repository debian
-b164861940b8: Download complete
-b164861940b8: Pulling image (jessie) from debian
-d1881793a057: Download complete
-```
-
-* As seen previously, images are made up of layers.
-
-* Docker has downloaded all the necessary layers.
-
-* In this example, `:jessie` indicates which exact version of Debian
-  we would like.
-
-  It is a *version tag*.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Image and tags
-
-* Images can have tags.
-
-* Tags define image versions or variants.
-
-* `docker pull ubuntu` will refer to `ubuntu:latest`.
-
-* The `:latest` tag is generally updated often.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## When to (not) use tags
-
-Don't specify tags:
-
-* When doing rapid testing and prototyping.
-* When experimenting.
-* When you want the latest version.
-
-Do specify tags:
-
-* When recording a procedure into a script.
-* When going to production.
-* To ensure that the same version will be used everywhere.
-* To ensure repeatability later.
-
-This is similar to what we would do with `pip install`, `npm install`, etc.
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Multi-arch images
-
-- An image can support multiple architectures
-
-- More precisely, a specific *tag* in a given *repository* can have either:
-
-  - a single *manifest* referencing an image for a single architecture
-
-  - a *manifest list* (or *fat manifest*) referencing multiple images
-
-- In a *manifest list*, each image is identified by a combination of:
-
-  - `os` (linux, windows)
-
-  - `architecture` (amd64, arm, arm64...)
-
-  - optional fields like `variant` (for arm and arm64), `os.version` (for windows)
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Working with multi-arch images
-
-- The Docker Engine will pull "native" images when available
-
-  (images matching its own os/architecture/variant)
-
-- We can ask for a specific image platform with `--platform`
-
-- The Docker Engine can run non-native images thanks to QEMU+binfmt
-
-  (automatically on Docker Desktop; with a bit of setup on Linux)
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-## Section summary
-
-We've learned how to:
-
-* Understand images and layers.
-* Understand Docker image namespacing.
-* Search and download images.
-
-???
-
-:EN:Building images
-:EN:- Containers, images, and layers
-:EN:- Image addresses and tags
-:EN:- Finding and transferring images
-
-:FR:Construire des images
-:FR:- La différence entre un conteneur et une image
-:FR:- La notion de *layer* partagé entre images
-
-.debug[[containers/Initial_Images.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Initial_Images.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/distillery-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-building-images-interactively
-class: title
-
- Building images interactively
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-understanding-docker-images)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-2)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-building-docker-images-with-a-dockerfile)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Building images interactively
-
-In this section, we will create our first container image.
-
-It will be a basic distribution image, but we will pre-install
-the package `figlet`.
-
-We will: 
-
-* Create a container from a base image.
-
-* Install software manually in the container, and turn it
-  into a new image.
-
-* Learn about new commands: `docker commit`, `docker tag`, and `docker diff`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## The plan
-
-1. Create a container (with `docker run`) using our base distro of choice.
-
-2. Run a bunch of commands to install and set up our software in the container.
-
-3. (Optionally) review changes in the container with `docker diff`.
-
-4. Turn the container into a new image with `docker commit`.
-
-5. (Optionally) add tags to the image with `docker tag`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## Setting up our container
-
-Start an Ubuntu container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it ubuntu
-root@<yourContainerId>:#/
-```
-
-Run the command `apt-get update` to refresh the list of packages available to install.
-
-Then run the command `apt-get install figlet` to install the program we are interested in.
-
-```bash
-root@<yourContainerId>:#/ apt-get update && apt-get install figlet
-.... OUTPUT OF APT-GET COMMANDS ....
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## Inspect the changes
-
-Type `exit` at the container prompt to leave the interactive session.
-
-Now let's run `docker diff` to see the difference between the base image
-and our container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker diff <yourContainerId>
-C /root
-A /root/.bash_history
-C /tmp
-C /usr
-C /usr/bin
-A /usr/bin/figlet
-...
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-class: x-extra-details
-
-## Docker tracks filesystem changes
-
-As explained before:
-
-* An image is read-only.
-
-* When we make changes, they happen in a copy of the image.
-
-* Docker can show the difference between the image, and its copy.
-
-* For performance, Docker uses copy-on-write systems.
-  <br/>(i.e. starting a container based on a big image
-  doesn't incur a huge copy.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## Copy-on-write security benefits
-
-* `docker diff` gives us an easy way to audit changes
-
-  (à la Tripwire)
-
-* Containers can also be started in read-only mode
-
-  (their root filesystem will be read-only, but they can still have read-write data volumes)
-
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## Commit our changes into a new image
-
-The `docker commit` command will create a new layer with those changes,
-and a new image using this new layer.
-
-```bash
-$ docker commit <yourContainerId>
-<newImageId>
-```
-
-The output of the `docker commit` command will be the ID for your newly created image.
-
-We can use it as an argument to `docker run`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## Testing our new image
-
-Let's run this image:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it <newImageId>
-root@fcfb62f0bfde:/# figlet hello
- _          _ _       
-| |__   ___| | | ___  
-| '_ \ / _ \ | |/ _ \ 
-| | | |  __/ | | (_) |
-|_| |_|\___|_|_|\___/ 
-```
-
-It works! 🎉
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## Tagging images
-
-Referring to an image by its ID is not convenient. Let's tag it instead.
-
-We can use the `tag` command:
-
-```bash
-$ docker tag <newImageId> figlet
-```
-
-But we can also specify the tag as an extra argument to `commit`:
-
-```bash
-$ docker commit <containerId> figlet
-```
-
-And then run it using its tag:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it figlet
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-## What's next?
-
-Manual process = bad.
-
-Automated process = good.
-
-In the next chapter, we will learn how to automate the build
-process by writing a `Dockerfile`.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Building our first images interactively
-:FR:- Fabriquer nos premières images à la main
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_Interactively.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/lots-of-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-building-docker-images-with-a-dockerfile
-class: title
-
- Building Docker images with a Dockerfile
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-building-images-interactively)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-2)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-cmd-and-entrypoint)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Building Docker images with a Dockerfile
-
-![Construction site with containers](images/title-building-docker-images-with-a-dockerfile.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-We will build a container image automatically, with a `Dockerfile`.
-
-At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
-
-* Write a `Dockerfile`.
-
-* Build an image from a `Dockerfile`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## `Dockerfile` overview
-
-* A `Dockerfile` is a build recipe for a Docker image.
-
-* It contains a series of instructions telling Docker how an image is constructed.
-
-* The `docker build` command builds an image from a `Dockerfile`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Writing our first `Dockerfile`
-
-Our Dockerfile must be in a **new, empty directory**.
-
-1. Create a directory to hold our `Dockerfile`.
-
-```bash
-$ mkdir myimage
-```
-
-2. Create a `Dockerfile` inside this directory.
-
-```bash
-$ cd myimage
-$ vim Dockerfile
-```
-
-Of course, you can use any other editor of your choice.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Type this into our Dockerfile...
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update
-RUN apt-get install figlet
-```
-
-* `FROM` indicates the base image for our build.
-
-* Each `RUN` line will be executed by Docker during the build.
-
-* Our `RUN` commands **must be non-interactive.**
-  <br/>(No input can be provided to Docker during the build.)
-
-* In many cases, we will add the `-y` flag to `apt-get`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Build it!
-
-Save our file, then execute:
-
-```bash
-$ docker build -t figlet .
-```
-
-* `-t` indicates the tag to apply to the image.
-
-* `.` indicates the location of the *build context*.
-
-We will talk more about the build context later.
-
-To keep things simple for now: this is the directory where our Dockerfile is located.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## What happens when we build the image?
-
-It depends if we're using BuildKit or not!
-
-If there are lots of blue lines and the first line looks like this:
-```
-[+] Building 1.8s (4/6)
-```
-... then we're using BuildKit.
-
-If the output is mostly black-and-white and the first line looks like this:
-```
-Sending build context to Docker daemon  2.048kB
-```
-... then we're using the "classic" or "old-style" builder.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## To BuildKit or Not To BuildKit
-
-Classic builder:
-
-- copies the whole "build context" to the Docker Engine
-
-- linear (processes lines one after the other)
-
-- requires a full Docker Engine
-
-BuildKit:
-
-- only transfers parts of the "build context" when needed
-
-- will parallelize operations (when possible)
-
-- can run in non-privileged containers (e.g. on Kubernetes)
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## With the classic builder
-
-The output of `docker build` looks like this:
-
-.small[
-```bash
-docker build -t figlet .
-Sending build context to Docker daemon  2.048kB
-Step 1/3 : FROM ubuntu
- ---> f975c5035748
-Step 2/3 : RUN apt-get update
- ---> Running in e01b294dbffd
-(...output of the RUN command...)
-Removing intermediate container e01b294dbffd
- ---> eb8d9b561b37
-Step 3/3 : RUN apt-get install figlet
- ---> Running in c29230d70f9b
-(...output of the RUN command...)
-Removing intermediate container c29230d70f9b
- ---> 0dfd7a253f21
-Successfully built 0dfd7a253f21
-Successfully tagged figlet:latest
-```
-]
-
-* The output of the `RUN` commands has been omitted.
-* Let's explain what this output means.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Sending the build context to Docker
-
-```bash
-Sending build context to Docker daemon 2.048 kB
-```
-
-* The build context is the `.` directory given to `docker build`.
-
-* It is sent (as an archive) by the Docker client to the Docker daemon.
-
-* This allows to use a remote machine to build using local files.
-
-* Be careful (or patient) if that directory is big and your link is slow.
-
-* You can speed up the process with a [`.dockerignore`](https://docs.docker.com/engine/reference/builder/#dockerignore-file) file
-
-  * It tells docker to ignore specific files in the directory
-
-  * Only ignore files that you won't need in the build context!
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Executing each step
-
-```bash
-Step 2/3 : RUN apt-get update
- ---> Running in e01b294dbffd
-(...output of the RUN command...)
-Removing intermediate container e01b294dbffd
- ---> eb8d9b561b37
-```
-
-* A container (`e01b294dbffd`) is created from the base image.
-
-* The `RUN` command is executed in this container.
-
-* The container is committed into an image (`eb8d9b561b37`).
-
-* The build container (`e01b294dbffd`) is removed.
-
-* The output of this step will be the base image for the next one.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## With BuildKit
-
-.small[
-```bash
-[+] Building 7.9s (7/7) FINISHED
- => [internal] load build definition from Dockerfile                                                 0.0s
- => => transferring dockerfile: 98B                                                                  0.0s
- => [internal] load .dockerignore                                                                    0.0s
- => => transferring context: 2B                                                                      0.0s
- => [internal] load metadata for docker.io/library/ubuntu:latest                                     1.2s
- => [1/3] FROM docker.io/library/ubuntu@sha256:cf31af331f38d1d7158470e095b132acd126a7180a54f263d386  3.2s
- => => resolve docker.io/library/ubuntu@sha256:cf31af331f38d1d7158470e095b132acd126a7180a54f263d386  0.0s
- => => sha256:cf31af331f38d1d7158470e095b132acd126a7180a54f263d386da88eb681d93 1.20kB / 1.20kB       0.0s
- => => sha256:1de4c5e2d8954bf5fa9855f8b4c9d3c3b97d1d380efe19f60f3e4107a66f5cae 943B / 943B           0.0s
- => => sha256:6a98cbe39225dadebcaa04e21dbe5900ad604739b07a9fa351dd10a6ebad4c1b 3.31kB / 3.31kB       0.0s
- => => sha256:80bc30679ac1fd798f3241208c14accd6a364cb8a6224d1127dfb1577d10554f 27.14MB / 27.14MB     2.3s
- => => sha256:9bf18fab4cfbf479fa9f8409ad47e2702c63241304c2cdd4c33f2a1633c5f85e 850B / 850B           0.5s
- => => sha256:5979309c983a2adeff352538937475cf961d49c34194fa2aab142effe19ed9c1 189B / 189B           0.4s
- => => extracting sha256:80bc30679ac1fd798f3241208c14accd6a364cb8a6224d1127dfb1577d10554f            0.7s
- => => extracting sha256:9bf18fab4cfbf479fa9f8409ad47e2702c63241304c2cdd4c33f2a1633c5f85e            0.0s
- => => extracting sha256:5979309c983a2adeff352538937475cf961d49c34194fa2aab142effe19ed9c1            0.0s
- => [2/3] RUN apt-get update                                                                         2.5s
- => [3/3] RUN apt-get install figlet                                                                 0.9s
- => exporting to image                                                                               0.1s
- => => exporting layers                                                                              0.1s
- => => writing image sha256:3b8aee7b444ab775975dfba691a72d8ac24af2756e0a024e056e3858d5a23f7c         0.0s
- => => naming to docker.io/library/figlet                                                            0.0s
- ```
- ]
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Understanding BuildKit output
-
-- BuildKit transfers the Dockerfile and the *build context*
-
-  (these are the first two `[internal]` stages)
-
-- Then it executes the steps defined in the Dockerfile
-
-  (`[1/3]`, `[2/3]`, `[3/3]`)
-
-- Finally, it exports the result of the build
-
-  (image definition + collection of layers)
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## BuildKit plain output
-
-- When running BuildKit in e.g. a CI pipeline, its output will be different
-
-- We can see the same output format by using `--progress=plain`
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The caching system
-
-If you run the same build again, it will be instantaneous. Why?
-
-* After each build step, Docker takes a snapshot of the resulting image.
-
-* Before executing a step, Docker checks if it has already built the same sequence.
-
-* Docker uses the exact strings defined in your Dockerfile, so:
-
-  * `RUN apt-get install figlet cowsay`
-    <br/> is different from
-    <br/> `RUN apt-get install cowsay figlet`
-
-  * `RUN apt-get update` is not re-executed when the mirrors are updated
-
-You can force a rebuild with `docker build --no-cache ...`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Running the image
-
-The resulting image is not different from the one produced manually.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -ti figlet
-root@91f3c974c9a1:/# figlet hello
- _          _ _       
-| |__   ___| | | ___  
-| '_ \ / _ \ | |/ _ \ 
-| | | |  __/ | | (_) |
-|_| |_|\___|_|_|\___/ 
-```
-
-
-Yay! 🎉
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Using image and viewing history
-
-The `history` command lists all the layers composing an image.
-
-For each layer, it shows its creation time, size, and creation command.
-
-When an image was built with a Dockerfile, each layer corresponds to
-a line of the Dockerfile.
-
-```bash
-$ docker history figlet
-IMAGE         CREATED            CREATED BY                     SIZE
-f9e8f1642759  About an hour ago  /bin/sh -c apt-get install fi  1.627 MB
-7257c37726a1  About an hour ago  /bin/sh -c apt-get update      21.58 MB
-07c86167cdc4  4 days ago         /bin/sh -c #(nop) CMD ["/bin   0 B
-<missing>     4 days ago         /bin/sh -c sed -i 's/^#\s*\(   1.895 kB
-<missing>     4 days ago         /bin/sh -c echo '#!/bin/sh'    194.5 kB
-<missing>     4 days ago         /bin/sh -c #(nop) ADD file:b   187.8 MB
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Why `sh -c`?
-
-* On UNIX, to start a new program, we need two system calls:
-
-  - `fork()`, to create a new child process;
-
-  - `execve()`, to replace the new child process with the program to run.
-
-* Conceptually, `execve()` works like this:
-
-  `execve(program, [list, of, arguments])`
-
-* When we run a command, e.g. `ls -l /tmp`, something needs to parse the command.
-
-  (i.e. split the program and its arguments into a list.)
-
-* The shell is usually doing that.
-
-  (It also takes care of expanding environment variables and special things like `~`.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Why `sh -c`?
-
-* When we do `RUN ls -l /tmp`, the Docker builder needs to parse the command.
-
-* Instead of implementing its own parser, it outsources the job to the shell.
-
-* That's why we see `sh -c ls -l /tmp` in that case.
-
-* But we can also do the parsing jobs ourselves.
-
-* This means passing `RUN` a list of arguments.
-
-* This is called the *exec syntax*.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Shell syntax vs exec syntax
-
-Dockerfile commands that execute something can have two forms:
-
-* plain string, or *shell syntax*:
-  <br/>`RUN apt-get install figlet`
-
-* JSON list, or *exec syntax*:
-  <br/>`RUN ["apt-get", "install", "figlet"]`
-
-We are going to change our Dockerfile to see how it affects the resulting image.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Using exec syntax in our Dockerfile
-
-Let's change our Dockerfile as follows!
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update
-RUN ["apt-get", "install", "figlet"]
-```
-
-Then build the new Dockerfile.
-
-```bash
-$ docker build -t figlet .
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## History with exec syntax
-
-Compare the new history:
-
-```bash
-$ docker history figlet
-IMAGE         CREATED            CREATED BY                     SIZE
-27954bb5faaf  10 seconds ago     apt-get install figlet         1.627 MB
-7257c37726a1  About an hour ago  /bin/sh -c apt-get update      21.58 MB
-07c86167cdc4  4 days ago         /bin/sh -c #(nop) CMD ["/bin   0 B
-<missing>     4 days ago         /bin/sh -c sed -i 's/^#\s*\(   1.895 kB
-<missing>     4 days ago         /bin/sh -c echo '#!/bin/sh'    194.5 kB
-<missing>     4 days ago         /bin/sh -c #(nop) ADD file:b   187.8 MB
-```
-
-* Exec syntax specifies an *exact* command to execute.
-
-* Shell syntax specifies a command to be wrapped within `/bin/sh -c "..."`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## When to use exec syntax and shell syntax
-
-* shell syntax:
-
-  * is easier to write
-  * interpolates environment variables and other shell expressions
-  * creates an extra process (`/bin/sh -c ...`) to parse the string
-  * requires `/bin/sh` to exist in the container
-
-* exec syntax:
-
-  * is harder to write (and read!)
-  * passes all arguments without extra processing
-  * doesn't create an extra process
-  * doesn't require `/bin/sh` to exist in the container
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Pro-tip: the `exec` shell built-in
-
-POSIX shells have a built-in command named `exec`.
-
-`exec` should be followed by a program and its arguments.
-
-From a user perspective:
-
-- it looks like the shell exits right away after the command execution,
-
-- in fact, the shell exits just *before* command execution;
-
-- or rather, the shell gets *replaced* by the command.
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Example using `exec`
-
-```dockerfile
-CMD exec figlet -f script hello
-```
-
-In this example, `sh -c` will still be used, but
-`figlet` will be PID 1 in the container.
-
-The shell gets replaced by `figlet` when `figlet` starts execution.
-
-This allows to run processes as PID 1 without using JSON.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Towards automated, reproducible builds
-:EN:- Writing our first Dockerfile
-:FR:- Rendre le processus automatique et reproductible
-:FR:- Écrire son premier Dockerfile
-
-.debug[[containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Building_Images_With_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/plastic-containers.JPG)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-cmd-and-entrypoint
-class: title
-
- `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT`
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-building-docker-images-with-a-dockerfile)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-2)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-copying-files-during-the-build)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT`
-
-![Container entry doors](images/entrypoint.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-In this lesson, we will learn about two important
-Dockerfile commands:
-
-`CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT`.
-
-These commands allow us to set the default command
-to run in a container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Defining a default command
-
-When people run our container, we want to greet them with a nice hello message, and using a custom font.
-
-For that, we will execute:
-
-```bash
-figlet -f script hello
-```
-
-* `-f script` tells figlet to use a fancy font.
-
-* `hello` is the message that we want it to display.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Adding `CMD` to our Dockerfile
-
-Our new Dockerfile will look like this:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update
-RUN ["apt-get", "install", "figlet"]
-CMD figlet -f script hello
-```
-
-* `CMD` defines a default command to run when none is given.
-
-* It can appear at any point in the file.
-
-* Each `CMD` will replace and override the previous one.
-
-* As a result, while you can have multiple `CMD` lines, it is useless.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Build and test our image
-
-Let's build it:
-
-```bash
-$ docker build -t figlet .
-...
-Successfully built 042dff3b4a8d
-Successfully tagged figlet:latest
-```
-
-And run it:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run figlet
- _          _   _       
-| |        | | | |      
-| |     _  | | | |  __  
-|/ \   |/  |/  |/  /  \_
-|   |_/|__/|__/|__/\__/ 
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Overriding `CMD`
-
-If we want to get a shell into our container (instead of running
-`figlet`), we just have to specify a different program to run:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it figlet bash
-root@7ac86a641116:/# 
-```
-
-* We specified `bash`.
-
-* It replaced the value of `CMD`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Using `ENTRYPOINT`
-
-We want to be able to specify a different message on the command line,
-while retaining `figlet` and some default parameters.
-
-In other words, we would like to be able to do this:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run figlet salut
-           _            
-          | |           
- ,   __,  | |       _|_ 
-/ \_/  |  |/  |   |  |  
- \/ \_/|_/|__/ \_/|_/|_/
-```
-
-
-We will use the `ENTRYPOINT` verb in Dockerfile.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Adding `ENTRYPOINT` to our Dockerfile
-
-Our new Dockerfile will look like this:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update
-RUN ["apt-get", "install", "figlet"]
-ENTRYPOINT ["figlet", "-f", "script"]
-```
-
-* `ENTRYPOINT` defines a base command (and its parameters) for the container.
-
-* The command line arguments are appended to those parameters.
-
-* Like `CMD`, `ENTRYPOINT` can appear anywhere, and replaces the previous value.
-
-Why did we use JSON syntax for our `ENTRYPOINT`?
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Implications of JSON vs string syntax
-
-* When CMD or ENTRYPOINT use string syntax, they get wrapped in `sh -c`.
-
-* To avoid this wrapping, we can use JSON syntax.
-
-What if we used `ENTRYPOINT` with string syntax?
-
-```bash
-$ docker run figlet salut
-```
-
-This would run the following command in the `figlet` image:
-
-```bash
-sh -c "figlet -f script" salut
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Build and test our image
-
-Let's build it:
-
-```bash
-$ docker build -t figlet .
-...
-Successfully built 36f588918d73
-Successfully tagged figlet:latest
-```
-
-And run it:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run figlet salut
-           _            
-          | |           
- ,   __,  | |       _|_ 
-/ \_/  |  |/  |   |  |  
- \/ \_/|_/|__/ \_/|_/|_/
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Using `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT` together
-
-What if we want to define a default message for our container?
-
-Then we will use `ENTRYPOINT` and `CMD` together.
-
-* `ENTRYPOINT` will define the base command for our container.
-
-* `CMD` will define the default parameter(s) for this command.
-
-* They *both* have to use JSON syntax.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT` together
-
-Our new Dockerfile will look like this:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update
-RUN ["apt-get", "install", "figlet"]
-ENTRYPOINT ["figlet", "-f", "script"]
-CMD ["hello world"]
-```
-
-* `ENTRYPOINT` defines a base command (and its parameters) for the container.
-
-* If we don't specify extra command-line arguments when starting the container,
-  the value of `CMD` is appended.
-
-* Otherwise, our extra command-line arguments are used instead of `CMD`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Build and test our image
-
-Let's build it:
-
-```bash
-$ docker build -t myfiglet .
-...
-Successfully built 6e0b6a048a07
-Successfully tagged myfiglet:latest
-```
-
-Run it without parameters:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run myfiglet
- _          _   _                             _        
-| |        | | | |                           | |    |  
-| |     _  | | | |  __             __   ,_   | |  __|  
-|/ \   |/  |/  |/  /  \_  |  |  |_/  \_/  |  |/  /  |  
-|   |_/|__/|__/|__/\__/    \/ \/  \__/    |_/|__/\_/|_/
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Overriding the image default parameters
-
-Now let's pass extra arguments to the image.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run myfiglet hola mundo
- _           _                                               
-| |         | |                                      |       
-| |     __  | |  __,     _  _  _           _  _    __|   __  
-|/ \   /  \_|/  /  |    / |/ |/ |  |   |  / |/ |  /  |  /  \_
-|   |_/\__/ |__/\_/|_/    |  |  |_/ \_/|_/  |  |_/\_/|_/\__/ 
-```
-
-We overrode `CMD` but still used `ENTRYPOINT`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## Overriding `ENTRYPOINT`
-
-What if we want to run a shell in our container?
-
-We cannot just do `docker run myfiglet bash` because
-that would just tell figlet to display the word "bash."
-
-We use the `--entrypoint` parameter:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it --entrypoint bash myfiglet
-root@6027e44e2955:/# 
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT` recap
-
-- `docker run myimage` executes `ENTRYPOINT` + `CMD`
-
-- `docker run myimage args` executes `ENTRYPOINT` + `args` (overriding `CMD`)
-
-- `docker run --entrypoint prog myimage` executes `prog` (overriding both)
-
-.small[
-| Command                         | `ENTRYPOINT`       | `CMD`   | Result
-|---------------------------------|--------------------|---------|-------
-| `docker run figlet`             | none               | none    | Use values from base image (`bash`)
-| `docker run figlet hola`        | none               | none    | Error (executable `hola` not found)
-| `docker run figlet`             | `figlet -f script` | none    | `figlet -f script`
-| `docker run figlet hola`        | `figlet -f script` | none    | `figlet -f script hola`
-| `docker run figlet`             | none    | `figlet -f script` | `figlet -f script`
-| `docker run figlet hola`        | none    | `figlet -f script` | Error (executable `hola` not found)
-| `docker run figlet`             | `figlet -f script` | `hello` | `figlet -f script hello`
-| `docker run figlet hola`        | `figlet -f script` | `hello` | `figlet -f script hola`
-]
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-## When to use `ENTRYPOINT` vs `CMD`
-
-`ENTRYPOINT` is great for "containerized binaries".
-
-Example: `docker run consul --help`
-
-(Pretend that the `docker run` part isn't there!)
-
-`CMD` is great for images with multiple binaries.
-
-Example: `docker run busybox ifconfig`
-
-(It makes sense to indicate *which* program we want to run!)
-
-???
-
-:EN:- CMD and ENTRYPOINT
-:FR:- CMD et ENTRYPOINT
-
-.debug[[containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Cmd_And_Entrypoint.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/train-of-containers-1.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-copying-files-during-the-build
-class: title
-
- Copying files during the build
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-cmd-and-entrypoint)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-2)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-exercise--writing-dockerfiles)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Copying files during the build
-
-![Monks copying books](images/title-copying-files-during-build.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-So far, we have installed things in our container images
-by downloading packages.
-
-We can also copy files from the *build context* to the
-container that we are building.
-
-Remember: the *build context* is the directory containing
-the Dockerfile.
-
-In this chapter, we will learn a new Dockerfile keyword: `COPY`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-## Build some C code
-
-We want to build a container that compiles a basic "Hello world" program in C.
-
-Here is the program, `hello.c`:
-
-```bash
-int main () {
-  puts("Hello, world!");
-  return 0;
-}
-```
-
-Let's create a new directory, and put this file in there.
-
-Then we will write the Dockerfile.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-## The Dockerfile
-
-On Debian and Ubuntu, the package `build-essential` will get us a compiler.
-
-When installing it, don't forget to specify the `-y` flag, otherwise the build will fail (since the build cannot be interactive).
-
-Then we will use `COPY` to place the source file into the container.
-
-```bash
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update
-RUN apt-get install -y build-essential
-COPY hello.c /
-RUN make hello
-CMD /hello
-```
-
-Create this Dockerfile.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-## Testing our C program
-
-* Create `hello.c` and `Dockerfile` in the same directory.
-
-* Run `docker build -t hello .` in this directory.
-
-* Run `docker run hello`, you should see `Hello, world!`.
-
-Success!
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-## `COPY` and the build cache
-
-* Run the build again.
-
-* Now, modify `hello.c` and run the build again.
-
-* Docker can cache steps involving `COPY`.
-
-* Those steps will not be executed again if the files haven't been changed.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-## Details
-
-* We can `COPY` whole directories recursively
-
-* It is possible to do e.g. `COPY . .`
-
-  (but it might require some extra precautions to avoid copying too much)
- 
-* In older Dockerfiles, you might see the `ADD` command; consider it deprecated
-
-  (it is similar to `COPY` but can automatically extract archives)
-
-* If we really wanted to compile C code in a container, we would:
-
-  * place it in a different directory, with the `WORKDIR` instruction
-
-  * even better, use the `gcc` official image
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## `.dockerignore`
-
-- We can create a file named `.dockerignore`
-
-  (at the top-level of the build context)
-
-- It can contain file names and globs to ignore
-
-- They won't be sent to the builder
-
-  (and won't end up in the resulting image)
-
-- See the [documentation] for the little details
-
-  (exceptions can be made with `!`, multiple directory levels with `**`...)
-
-[documentation]: https://docs.docker.com/engine/reference/builder/#dockerignore-file
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Leveraging the build cache for faster builds
-:FR:- Tirer parti du cache afin d'optimiser la vitesse de *build*
-
-.debug[[containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copying_Files_During_Build.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/train-of-containers-2.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-exercise--writing-dockerfiles
-class: title
-
- Exercise — writing Dockerfiles
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-copying-files-during-the-build)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-2)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-reducing-image-size)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Exercise — writing Dockerfiles
-
-Let's write Dockerfiles for an existing application!
-
-1. Check out the code repository
-
-2. Read all the instructions
-
-3. Write Dockerfiles
-
-4. Build and test them individually
-
-<!--
-5. Test them together with the provided Compose file
--->
-
-.debug[[containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md)]
----
-
-## Code repository
-
-Clone the repository available at:
-
-https://github.com/jpetazzo/wordsmith
-
-It should look like this:
-```
-├── LICENSE
-├── README
-├── db/
-│   └── words.sql
-├── web/
-│   ├── dispatcher.go
-│   └── static/
-└── words/
-    ├── pom.xml
-    └── src/
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md)]
----
-
-## Instructions
-
-The repository contains instructions in English and French.
-<br/>
-For now, we only care about the first part (about writing Dockerfiles).
-<br/>
-Place each Dockerfile in its own directory, like this:
-```
-├── LICENSE
-├── README
-├── db/
-│   ├── `Dockerfile`
-│   └── words.sql
-├── web/
-│   ├── `Dockerfile`
-│   ├── dispatcher.go
-│   └── static/
-└── words/
-    ├── `Dockerfile`
-    ├── pom.xml
-    └── src/
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md)]
----
-
-## Build and test
-
-Build and run each Dockerfile individually.
-
-For `db`, we should be able to see some messages confirming that the data set
-was loaded successfully (some `INSERT` lines in the container output).
-
-For `web` and `words`, we should be able to see some message looking like
-"server started successfully".
-
-That's all we care about for now!
-
-Bonus question: make sure that each container stops correctly when hitting Ctrl-C.
-
-???
-
-## Test with a Compose file
-
-Place the following Compose file at the root of the repository:
-
-
-```yaml
-version: "3"
-services:
-  db:
-    build: db
-  words:
-    build: words
-  web:
-    build: web
-    ports:
-    - 8888:80
-```
-
-Test the whole app by bringin up the stack and connecting to port 8888.
-
-.debug[[containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Basic.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/two-containers-on-a-truck.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-reducing-image-size
-class: title
-
- Reducing image size
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-exercise--writing-dockerfiles)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-3)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-multi-stage-builds)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Reducing image size
-
-* In the previous example, our final image contained:
-
-  * our `hello` program
-
-  * its source code
-
-  * the compiler
-
-* Only the first one is strictly necessary.
-
-* We are going to see how to obtain an image without the superfluous components.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Can't we remove superfluous files with `RUN`?
-
-What happens if we do one of the following commands?
-
-- `RUN rm -rf ...`
-
-- `RUN apt-get remove ...`
-
-- `RUN make clean ...`
-
---
-
-This adds a layer which removes a bunch of files.
-
-But the previous layers (which added the files) still exist.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Removing files with an extra layer
-
-When downloading an image, all the layers must be downloaded.
-
-| Dockerfile instruction | Layer size | Image size |
-| ---------------------- | ---------- | ---------- |
-| `FROM ubuntu` | Size of base image | Size of base image |
-| `...` | ... | Sum of this layer <br/>+ all previous ones |
-| `RUN apt-get install somepackage` | Size of files added <br/>(e.g. a few MB) | Sum of this layer <br/>+ all previous ones |
-| `...` | ... | Sum of this layer <br/>+ all previous ones |
-| `RUN apt-get remove somepackage` | Almost zero <br/>(just metadata) | Same as previous one |
-
-Therefore, `RUN rm` does not reduce the size of the image or free up disk space.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Removing unnecessary files
-
-Various techniques are available to obtain smaller images:
-
-- collapsing layers,
-
-- adding binaries that are built outside of the Dockerfile,
-
-- squashing the final image,
-
-- multi-stage builds.
-
-Let's review them quickly.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Collapsing layers
-
-You will frequently see Dockerfiles like this:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update && apt-get install xxx && ... && apt-get remove xxx && ...
-```
-
-Or the (more readable) variant:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-RUN apt-get update \
- && apt-get install xxx \
- && ... \
- && apt-get remove xxx \
- && ...
-```
-
-This `RUN` command gives us a single layer.
-
-The files that are added, then removed in the same layer, do not grow the layer size.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Collapsing layers: pros and cons
-
-Pros:
-
-- works on all versions of Docker
-
-- doesn't require extra tools
-
-Cons:
-
-- not very readable
-
-- some unnecessary files might still remain if the cleanup is not thorough
-
-- that layer is expensive (slow to build)
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Building binaries outside of the Dockerfile
-
-This results in a Dockerfile looking like this:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu
-COPY xxx /usr/local/bin
-```
-
-Of course, this implies that the file `xxx` exists in the build context.
-
-That file has to exist before you can run `docker build`.
-
-For instance, it can:
-
-- exist in the code repository,
-- be created by another tool (script, Makefile...),
-- be created by another container image and extracted from the image.
-
-See for instance the [busybox official image](https://github.com/docker-library/busybox/blob/fe634680e32659aaf0ee0594805f74f332619a90/musl/Dockerfile) or this [older busybox image](https://github.com/jpetazzo/docker-busybox).
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Building binaries outside: pros and cons
-
-Pros:
-
-- final image can be very small
-
-Cons:
-
-- requires an extra build tool
-
-- we're back in dependency hell and "works on my machine"
-
-Cons, if binary is added to code repository:
-
-- breaks portability across different platforms
-
-- grows repository size a lot if the binary is updated frequently
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Squashing the final image
-
-The idea is to transform the final image into a single-layer image.
-
-This can be done in (at least) two ways.
-
-- Activate experimental features and squash the final image:
-  ```bash
-  docker image build --squash ...
-  ```
-
-- Export/import the final image.
-  ```bash
-  docker build -t temp-image .
-  docker run --entrypoint true --name temp-container temp-image
-  docker export temp-container | docker import - final-image
-  docker rm temp-container
-  docker rmi temp-image
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Squashing the image: pros and cons
-
-Pros:
-
-- single-layer images are smaller and faster to download
-
-- removed files no longer take up storage and network resources
-
-Cons:
-
-- we still need to actively remove unnecessary files
-
-- squash operation can take a lot of time (on big images)
-
-- squash operation does not benefit from cache
-  <br/>
-  (even if we change just a tiny file, the whole image needs to be re-squashed)
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Multi-stage builds
-
-Multi-stage builds allow us to have multiple *stages*.
-
-Each stage is a separate image, and can copy files from previous stages.
-
-We're going to see how they work in more detail.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/wall-of-containers.jpeg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-multi-stage-builds
-class: title
-
- Multi-stage builds
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-reducing-image-size)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-3)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-publishing-images-to-the-docker-hub)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-# Multi-stage builds
-
-* At any point in our `Dockerfile`, we can add a new `FROM` line.
-
-* This line starts a new stage of our build.
-
-* Each stage can access the files of the previous stages with `COPY --from=...`.
-
-* When a build is tagged (with `docker build -t ...`), the last stage is tagged.
-
-* Previous stages are not discarded: they will be used for caching, and can be referenced.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Multi-stage builds in practice
-
-* Each stage is numbered, starting at `0`
-
-* We can copy a file from a previous stage by indicating its number, e.g.:
-
-  ```dockerfile
-  COPY --from=0 /file/from/first/stage /location/in/current/stage
-  ```
-
-* We can also name stages, and reference these names:
-
-  ```dockerfile
-  FROM golang AS builder
-  RUN ...
-  FROM alpine
-  COPY --from=builder /go/bin/mylittlebinary /usr/local/bin/
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Multi-stage builds for our C program
-
-We will change our Dockerfile to:
-
-* give a nickname to the first stage: `compiler`
-
-* add a second stage using the same `ubuntu` base image
-
-* add the `hello` binary to the second stage
-
-* make sure that `CMD` is in the second stage 
-
-The resulting Dockerfile is on the next slide.
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Multi-stage build `Dockerfile`
-
-Here is the final Dockerfile:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ubuntu AS compiler
-RUN apt-get update
-RUN apt-get install -y build-essential
-COPY hello.c /
-RUN make hello
-FROM ubuntu
-COPY --from=compiler /hello /hello
-CMD /hello
-```
-
-Let's build it, and check that it works correctly:
-
-```bash
-docker build -t hellomultistage .
-docker run hellomultistage
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Comparing single/multi-stage build image sizes
-
-List our images with `docker images`, and check the size of:
-
-- the `ubuntu` base image,
-
-- the single-stage `hello` image,
-
-- the multi-stage `hellomultistage` image.
-
-We can achieve even smaller images if we use smaller base images.
-
-However, if we use common base images (e.g. if we standardize on `ubuntu`),
-these common images will be pulled only once per node, so they are
-virtually "free."
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-## Build targets
-
-* We can also tag an intermediary stage with the following command:
-  ```bash
-  docker build --target STAGE --tag NAME
-  ```
-
-* This will create an image (named `NAME`) corresponding to stage `STAGE`
-
-* This can be used to easily access an intermediary stage for inspection
-
-  (instead of parsing the output of `docker build` to find out the image ID)
-
-* This can also be used to describe multiple images from a single Dockerfile
-
-  (instead of using multiple Dockerfiles, which could go out of sync)
-
-???
-
-:EN:Optimizing our images and their build process
-:EN:- Leveraging multi-stage builds
-
-:FR:Optimiser les images et leur construction
-:FR:- Utilisation d'un *multi-stage build*
-
-.debug[[containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Multi_Stage_Builds.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/catene-de-conteneurs.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-publishing-images-to-the-docker-hub
-class: title
-
- Publishing images to the Docker Hub
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-multi-stage-builds)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-3)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-tips-for-efficient-dockerfiles)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Publishing images to the Docker Hub
-
-We have built our first images.
-
-We can now publish it to the Docker Hub!
-
-*You don't have to do the exercises in this section,
-because they require an account on the Docker Hub, and we
-don't want to force anyone to create one.*
-
-*Note, however, that creating an account on the Docker Hub
-is free (and doesn't require a credit card), and hosting
-public images is free as well.*
-
-.debug[[containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md)]
----
-
-## Logging into our Docker Hub account
-
-* This can be done from the Docker CLI:
-  ```bash
-  docker login
-  ```
-
-.warning[When running Docker for Mac/Windows, or
-Docker on a Linux workstation, it can (and will when
-possible) integrate with your system's keyring to
-store your credentials securely. However, on most Linux
-servers, it will store your credentials in `~/.docker/config`.]
-
-.debug[[containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md)]
----
-
-## Image tags and registry addresses
-
-* Docker images tags are like Git tags and branches.
-
-* They are like *bookmarks* pointing at a specific image ID.
-
-* Tagging an image doesn't *rename* an image: it adds another tag.
-
-* When pushing an image to a registry, the registry address is in the tag.
-
-  Example: `registry.example.net:5000/image`
-
-* What about Docker Hub images?
-
---
-
-* `jpetazzo/clock` is, in fact, `index.docker.io/jpetazzo/clock`
-
-* `ubuntu` is, in fact, `library/ubuntu`, i.e. `index.docker.io/library/ubuntu`
-
-.debug[[containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md)]
----
-
-## Tagging an image to push it on the Hub
-
-* Let's tag our `figlet` image (or any other to our liking):
-  ```bash
-  docker tag figlet jpetazzo/figlet
-  ```
-
-* And push it to the Hub:
-  ```bash
-  docker push jpetazzo/figlet
-  ```
-
-* That's it!
-
---
-
-* Anybody can now `docker run jpetazzo/figlet` anywhere.
-
-.debug[[containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md)]
----
-
-## The goodness of automated builds
-
-* You can link a Docker Hub repository with a GitHub or BitBucket repository
-
-* Each push to GitHub or BitBucket will trigger a build on Docker Hub
-
-* If the build succeeds, the new image is available on Docker Hub
-
-* You can map tags and branches between source and container images
-
-* If you work with public repositories, this is free
-
-.debug[[containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Setting up an automated build
-
-* We need a Dockerized repository!
-* Let's go to https://github.com/jpetazzo/trainingwheels and fork it.
-* Go to the Docker Hub (https://hub.docker.com/) and sign-in. Select "Repositories" in the blue navigation menu.
-* Select "Create" in the top-right bar, and select "Create Repository+".
-* Connect your Docker Hub account to your GitHub account.
-* Click "Create" button.
-* Then go to "Builds" folder.
-* Click on Github icon and select your user and the repository that we just forked.
-* In "Build rules" block near page bottom, put `/www` in "Build Context" column (or whichever directory the Dockerfile is in).
-* Click "Save and Build" to build the repository immediately (without waiting for a git push).
-* Subsequent builds will happen automatically, thanks to GitHub hooks.
-
-.debug[[containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md)]
----
-
-## Building on the fly
-
-- Some services can build images on the fly from a repository
-
-- Example: [ctr.run](https://ctr.run/)
-
-.lab[
-
-- Use ctr.run to automatically build a container image and run it:
-  ```bash
-  docker run ctr.run/github.com/undefinedlabs/hello-world
-  ```
-
-]
-
-There might be a long pause before the first layer is pulled,
-because the API behind `docker pull` doesn't allow to stream build logs, and there is no feedback during the build.
-
-It is possible to view the build logs by setting up an account on [ctr.run](https://ctr.run/).
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Publishing images to the Docker Hub
-:FR:- Publier des images sur le Docker Hub
-
-.debug[[containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Publishing_To_Docker_Hub.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/Container-Ship-Freighter-Navigation-Elbe-Romance-1782991.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-tips-for-efficient-dockerfiles
-class: title
-
- Tips for efficient Dockerfiles
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-publishing-images-to-the-docker-hub)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-3)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-dockerfile-examples)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Tips for efficient Dockerfiles
-
-We will see how to:
-
-* Reduce the number of layers.
-
-* Leverage the build cache so that builds can be faster.
-
-* Embed unit testing in the build process.
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Reducing the number of layers
-
-* Each line in a `Dockerfile` creates a new layer.
-
-* Build your `Dockerfile` to take advantage of Docker's caching system.
-
-* Combine commands by using `&&` to continue commands and `\` to wrap lines.
-
-Note: it is frequent to build a Dockerfile line by line:
-
-```dockerfile
-RUN apt-get install thisthing
-RUN apt-get install andthatthing andthatotherone
-RUN apt-get install somemorestuff
-```
-
-And then refactor it trivially before shipping:
-
-```dockerfile
-RUN apt-get install thisthing andthatthing andthatotherone somemorestuff
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Avoid re-installing dependencies at each build
-
-* Classic Dockerfile problem:
-
-  "each time I change a line of code, all my dependencies are re-installed!"
-
-* Solution: `COPY` dependency lists (`package.json`, `requirements.txt`, etc.)
-  by themselves to avoid reinstalling unchanged dependencies every time.
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Example "bad" `Dockerfile`
-
-The dependencies are reinstalled every time, because the build system does not know if `requirements.txt` has been updated.
-
-```bash
-FROM python
-WORKDIR /src
-COPY . .
-RUN pip install -qr requirements.txt
-EXPOSE 5000
-CMD ["python", "app.py"]
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Fixed `Dockerfile`
-
-Adding the dependencies as a separate step means that Docker can cache more efficiently and only install them when `requirements.txt` changes.
-
-```bash
-FROM python
-WORKDIR /src
-COPY requirements.txt .
-RUN pip install -qr requirements.txt
-COPY . .
-EXPOSE 5000
-CMD ["python", "app.py"]
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Be careful with `chown`, `chmod`, `mv`
-
-* Layers cannot store efficiently changes in permissions or ownership.
-
-* Layers cannot represent efficiently when a file is moved either.
-
-* As a result, operations like `chown`, `chown`, `mv` can be expensive.
-
-* For instance, in the Dockerfile snippet below, each `RUN` line
-  creates a layer with an entire copy of `some-file`.
-
-  ```dockerfile
-  COPY some-file .
-  RUN chown www-data:www-data some-file
-  RUN chmod 644 some-file
-  RUN mv some-file /var/www
-  ```
-
-* How can we avoid that?
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Put files on the right place
-
-* Instead of using `mv`, directly put files at the right place.
-
-* When extracting archives (tar, zip...), merge operations in a single layer.
-
-  Example:
-
-  ```dockerfile
-    ...
-    RUN wget http://.../foo.tar.gz \
-     && tar -zxf foo.tar.gz \
-     && mv foo/fooctl /usr/local/bin \
-     && rm -rf foo foo.tar.gz
-  ...
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Use `COPY --chown`
-
-* The Dockerfile instruction `COPY` can take a `--chown` parameter.
-
-  Examples:
-
-  ```dockerfile
-  ...
-  COPY --chown=1000 some-file .
-  COPY --chown=1000:1000 some-file .
-  COPY --chown=www-data:www-data some-file .
-  ```
-
-* The `--chown` flag can specify a user, or a user:group pair.
-
-* The user and group can be specified as names or numbers.
-
-* When using names, the names must exist in `/etc/passwd` or `/etc/group`.
-
-  *(In the container, not on the host!)*
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Set correct permissions locally
-
-* Instead of using `chmod`, set the right file permissions locally.
-
-* When files are copied with `COPY`, permissions are preserved.
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Embedding unit tests in the build process
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM <baseimage>
-RUN <install dependencies>
-COPY <code>
-RUN <build code>
-RUN <install test dependencies>
-COPY <test data sets and fixtures>
-RUN <unit tests>
-FROM <baseimage>
-RUN <install dependencies>
-COPY <code>
-RUN <build code>
-CMD, EXPOSE ...
-```
-
-* The build fails as soon as an instruction fails
-* If `RUN <unit tests>` fails, the build doesn't produce an image
-* If it succeeds, it produces a clean image (without test libraries and data)
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/ShippingContainerSFBay.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-dockerfile-examples
-class: title
-
- Dockerfile examples
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-tips-for-efficient-dockerfiles)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-3)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-exercise--writing-better-dockerfiles)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-# Dockerfile examples
-
-There are a number of tips, tricks, and techniques that we can use in Dockerfiles.
-
-But sometimes, we have to use different (and even opposed) practices depending on:
-
-- the complexity of our project,
-
-- the programming language or framework that we are using,
-
-- the stage of our project (early MVP vs. super-stable production),
-
-- whether we're building a final image or a base for further images,
-
-- etc.
-
-We are going to show a few examples using very different techniques.
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## When to optimize an image
-
-When authoring official images, it is a good idea to reduce as much as possible:
-
-- the number of layers,
-
-- the size of the final image.
-
-This is often done at the expense of build time and convenience for the image maintainer;
-but when an image is downloaded millions of time, saving even a few seconds of pull time
-can be worth it.
-
-.small[
-```dockerfile
-RUN apt-get update && apt-get install -y libpng12-dev libjpeg-dev && rm -rf /var/lib/apt/lists/* \
-	&& docker-php-ext-configure gd --with-png-dir=/usr --with-jpeg-dir=/usr \
-	&& docker-php-ext-install gd
-...
-RUN curl -o wordpress.tar.gz -SL https://wordpress.org/wordpress-${WORDPRESS_UPSTREAM_VERSION}.tar.gz \
-	&& echo "$WORDPRESS_SHA1 *wordpress.tar.gz" | sha1sum -c - \
-	&& tar -xzf wordpress.tar.gz -C /usr/src/ \
-	&& rm wordpress.tar.gz \
-	&& chown -R www-data:www-data /usr/src/wordpress
-```
-]
-
-(Source: [Wordpress official image](https://github.com/docker-library/wordpress/blob/618490d4bdff6c5774b84b717979bfe3d6ba8ad1/apache/Dockerfile))
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## When to *not* optimize an image
-
-Sometimes, it is better to prioritize *maintainer convenience*.
-
-In particular, if:
-
-- the image changes a lot,
-
-- the image has very few users (e.g. only 1, the maintainer!),
-
-- the image is built and run on the same machine,
-
-- the image is built and run on machines with a very fast link ...
-
-In these cases, just keep things simple!
-
-(Next slide: a Dockerfile that can be used to preview a Jekyll / github pages site.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM debian:sid
-
-RUN apt-get update -q
-RUN apt-get install -yq build-essential make
-RUN apt-get install -yq zlib1g-dev
-RUN apt-get install -yq ruby ruby-dev
-RUN apt-get install -yq python-pygments
-RUN apt-get install -yq nodejs
-RUN apt-get install -yq cmake
-RUN gem install --no-rdoc --no-ri github-pages
-
-COPY . /blog
-WORKDIR /blog
-
-VOLUME /blog/_site
-
-EXPOSE 4000
-CMD ["jekyll", "serve", "--host", "0.0.0.0", "--incremental"]
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Multi-dimensional versioning systems
-
-Images can have a tag, indicating the version of the image.
-
-But sometimes, there are multiple important components, and we need to indicate the versions
-for all of them.
-
-This can be done with environment variables:
-
-```dockerfile
-ENV PIP=9.0.3 \
-    ZC_BUILDOUT=2.11.2 \
-    SETUPTOOLS=38.7.0 \
-    PLONE_MAJOR=5.1 \
-    PLONE_VERSION=5.1.0 \
-    PLONE_MD5=76dc6cfc1c749d763c32fff3a9870d8d
-```
-
-(Source: [Plone official image](https://github.com/plone/plone.docker/blob/master/5.1/5.1.0/alpine/Dockerfile))
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Entrypoints and wrappers
-
-It is very common to define a custom entrypoint.
-
-That entrypoint will generally be a script, performing any combination of:
-
-- pre-flights checks (if a required dependency is not available, display
-  a nice error message early instead of an obscure one in a deep log file),
-
-- generation or validation of configuration files,
-
-- dropping privileges (with e.g. `su` or `gosu`, sometimes combined with `chown`),
-
-- and more.
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## A typical entrypoint script
-
-```dockerfile
- #!/bin/sh
- set -e
- 
- # first arg is '-f' or '--some-option'
- # or first arg is 'something.conf'
- if [ "${1#-}" != "$1" ] || [ "${1%.conf}" != "$1" ]; then
- 	set -- redis-server "$@"
- fi
- 
- # allow the container to be started with '--user'
- if [ "$1" = 'redis-server' -a "$(id -u)" = '0' ]; then
- 	chown -R redis .
- 	exec su-exec redis "$0" "$@"
- fi
- 
- exec "$@"
-```
-
-(Source: [Redis official image](https://github.com/docker-library/redis/blob/d24f2be82673ccef6957210cc985e392ebdc65e4/4.0/alpine/docker-entrypoint.sh))
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Factoring information
-
-To facilitate maintenance (and avoid human errors), avoid to repeat information like:
-
-- version numbers,
-
-- remote asset URLs (e.g. source tarballs) ...
-
-Instead, use environment variables.
-
-.small[
-```dockerfile
-ENV NODE_VERSION 10.2.1
-...
-RUN ...
-    && curl -fsSLO --compressed "https://nodejs.org/dist/v$NODE_VERSION/node-v$NODE_VERSION.tar.xz" \
-    && curl -fsSLO --compressed "https://nodejs.org/dist/v$NODE_VERSION/SHASUMS256.txt.asc" \
-    && gpg --batch --decrypt --output SHASUMS256.txt SHASUMS256.txt.asc \
-    && grep " node-v$NODE_VERSION.tar.xz\$" SHASUMS256.txt | sha256sum -c - \
-    && tar -xf "node-v$NODE_VERSION.tar.xz" \
-    && cd "node-v$NODE_VERSION" \
-...
-```
-]
-
-(Source: [Nodejs official image](https://github.com/nodejs/docker-node/blob/master/10/alpine/Dockerfile))
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Overrides
-
-In theory, development and production images should be the same.
-
-In practice, we often need to enable specific behaviors in development (e.g. debug statements).
-
-One way to reconcile both needs is to use Compose to enable these behaviors.
-
-Let's look at the [trainingwheels](https://github.com/jpetazzo/trainingwheels) demo app for an example.
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Production image
-
-This Dockerfile builds an image leveraging gunicorn:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM python
-RUN pip install flask
-RUN pip install gunicorn
-RUN pip install redis
-COPY . /src
-WORKDIR /src
-CMD gunicorn --bind 0.0.0.0:5000 --workers 10 counter:app
-EXPOSE 5000
-```
-
-(Source: [trainingwheels Dockerfile](https://github.com/jpetazzo/trainingwheels/blob/master/www/Dockerfile))
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## Development Compose file
-
-This Compose file uses the same image, but with a few overrides for development:
-
-- the Flask development server is used (overriding `CMD`),
-
-- the `DEBUG` environment variable is set,
-
-- a volume is used to provide a faster local development workflow.
-
-.small[
-```yaml
-services:
-  www:
-    build: www
-    ports:
-      - 8000:5000
-    user: nobody
-    environment:
-      DEBUG: 1
-    command: python counter.py
-    volumes:
-      - ./www:/src
-```
-]
-
-(Source: [trainingwheels Compose file](https://github.com/jpetazzo/trainingwheels/blob/master/docker-compose.yml))
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-## How to know which best practices are better?
-
-- The main goal of containers is to make our lives easier.
-
-- In this chapter, we showed many ways to write Dockerfiles.
-
-- These Dockerfiles use sometimes diametrically opposed techniques.
-
-- Yet, they were the "right" ones *for a specific situation.*
-
-- It's OK (and even encouraged) to start simple and evolve as needed.
-
-- Feel free to review this chapter later (after writing a few Dockerfiles) for inspiration!
-
-???
-
-:EN:Optimizing images
-:EN:- Dockerfile tips, tricks, and best practices
-:EN:- Reducing build time
-:EN:- Reducing image size
-
-:FR:Optimiser ses images
-:FR:- Bonnes pratiques, trucs et astuces
-:FR:- Réduire le temps de build
-:FR:- Réduire la taille des images
-
-.debug[[containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Dockerfile_Tips.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/aerial-view-of-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-exercise--writing-better-dockerfiles
-class: title
-
- Exercise — writing better Dockerfiles
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-dockerfile-examples)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-3)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-naming-and-inspecting-containers)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Exercise — writing better Dockerfiles
-
-Let's update our Dockerfiles to leverage multi-stage builds!
-
-The code is at: https://github.com/jpetazzo/wordsmith
-
-Use a different tag for these images, so that we can compare their sizes.
-
-What's the size difference between single-stage and multi-stage builds?
-
-.debug[[containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Advanced.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Exercise_Dockerfile_Advanced.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/blue-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-naming-and-inspecting-containers
-class: title
-
- Naming and inspecting containers
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-exercise--writing-better-dockerfiles)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-4)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-labels)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Naming and inspecting containers
-
-![Markings on container door](images/title-naming-and-inspecting-containers.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-In this lesson, we will learn about an important
-Docker concept: container *naming*.
-
-Naming allows us to:
-
-* Reference easily a container.
-
-* Ensure unicity of a specific container.
-
-We will also see the `inspect` command, which gives a lot of details about a container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Naming our containers
-
-So far, we have referenced containers with their ID.
-
-We have copy-pasted the ID, or used a shortened prefix.
-
-But each container can also be referenced by its name.
-
-If a container is named `thumbnail-worker`, I can do:
-
-```bash
-$ docker logs thumbnail-worker
-$ docker stop thumbnail-worker
-etc.
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Default names
-
-When we create a container, if we don't give a specific
-name, Docker will pick one for us.
-
-It will be the concatenation of:
-
-* A mood (furious, goofy, suspicious, boring...)
-
-* The name of a famous inventor (tesla, darwin, wozniak...)
-
-Examples: `happy_curie`, `clever_hopper`, `jovial_lovelace` ...
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Specifying a name
-
-You can set the name of the container when you create it.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --name ticktock jpetazzo/clock
-```
-
-If you specify a name that already exists, Docker will refuse
-to create the container.
-
-This lets us enforce unicity of a given resource.
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Renaming containers
-
-* You can rename containers with `docker rename`.
-
-* This allows you to "free up" a name without destroying the associated container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Inspecting a container
-
-The `docker inspect` command will output a very detailed JSON map.
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect <containerID>
-[{
-...
-(many pages of JSON here)
-...
-```
-
-There are multiple ways to consume that information.
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Parsing JSON with the Shell
-
-* You *could* grep and cut or awk the output of `docker inspect`.
-
-* Please, don't.
-
-* It's painful.
-
-* If you really must parse JSON from the Shell, use JQ! (It's great.)
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect <containerID> | jq .
-```
-
-* We will see a better solution which doesn't require extra tools.
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-## Using `--format`
-
-You can specify a format string, which will be parsed by 
-Go's text/template package.
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect --format '{{ json .Created }}' <containerID>
-"2015-02-24T07:21:11.712240394Z"
-```
-
-* The generic syntax is to wrap the expression with double curly braces.
-
-* The expression starts with a dot representing the JSON object.
-
-* Then each field or member can be accessed in dotted notation syntax.
-
-* The optional `json` keyword asks for valid JSON output.
-  <br/>(e.g. here it adds the surrounding double-quotes.)
-
-???
-
-:EN:Managing container lifecycle
-:EN:- Naming and inspecting containers
-
-:FR:Suivre ses conteneurs à la loupe
-:FR:- Obtenir des informations détaillées sur un conteneur
-:FR:- Associer un identifiant unique à un conteneur
-
-.debug[[containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Naming_And_Inspecting.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/chinook-helicopter-container.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-labels
-class: title
-
- Labels
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-naming-and-inspecting-containers)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-4)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-getting-inside-a-container)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Labels
-
-* Labels allow to attach arbitrary metadata to containers.
-
-* Labels are key/value pairs.
-
-* They are specified at container creation.
-
-* You can query them with `docker inspect`.
-
-* They can also be used as filters with some commands (e.g. `docker ps`).
-
-.debug[[containers/Labels.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Labels.md)]
----
-
-## Using labels
-
-Let's create a few containers with a label `owner`.
-
-```bash
-docker run -d -l owner=alice nginx
-docker run -d -l owner=bob nginx
-docker run -d -l owner nginx
-```
-
-We didn't specify a value for the `owner` label in the last example.
-
-This is equivalent to setting the value to be an empty string.
-
-.debug[[containers/Labels.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Labels.md)]
----
-
-## Querying labels
-
-We can view the labels with `docker inspect`.
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect $(docker ps -lq) | grep -A3 Labels
-            "Labels": {
-                "maintainer": "NGINX Docker Maintainers <docker-maint@nginx.com>",
-                "owner": ""
-            },
-```
-
-We can use the `--format` flag to list the value of a label.
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect $(docker ps -q) --format 'OWNER={{.Config.Labels.owner}}'
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Labels.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Labels.md)]
----
-
-## Using labels to select containers
-
-We can list containers having a specific label.
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps --filter label=owner
-```
-
-Or we can list containers having a specific label with a specific value.
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps --filter label=owner=alice
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Labels.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Labels.md)]
----
-
-## Use-cases for labels
-
-
-* HTTP vhost of a web app or web service.
-
-  (The label is used to generate the configuration for NGINX, HAProxy, etc.)
-
-* Backup schedule for a stateful service.
-
-  (The label is used by a cron job to determine if/when to backup container data.)
-
-* Service ownership.
-
-  (To determine internal cross-billing, or who to page in case of outage.)
-
-* etc.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Using labels to identify containers
-:FR:- Étiqueter ses conteneurs avec des méta-données
-
-.debug[[containers/Labels.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Labels.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/container-cranes.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-getting-inside-a-container
-class: title
-
- Getting inside a container
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-labels)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-4)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-container-networking-basics)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Getting inside a container
-
-![Person standing inside a container](images/getting-inside.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-On a traditional server or VM, we sometimes need to:
-
-* log into the machine (with SSH or on the console),
-
-* analyze the disks (by removing them or rebooting with a rescue system).
-
-In this chapter, we will see how to do that with containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Getting a shell
-
-Every once in a while, we want to log into a machine.
-
-In an perfect world, this shouldn't be necessary.
-
-* You need to install or update packages (and their configuration)?
-
-  Use configuration management. (e.g. Ansible, Chef, Puppet, Salt...)
-
-* You need to view logs and metrics?
-
-  Collect and access them through a centralized platform.
-
-In the real world, though ... we often need shell access!
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Not getting a shell
-
-Even without a perfect deployment system, we can do many operations without getting a shell.
-
-* Installing packages can (and should) be done in the container image.
-
-* Configuration can be done at the image level, or when the container starts.
-
-* Dynamic configuration can be stored in a volume (shared with another container).
-
-* Logs written to stdout are automatically collected by the Docker Engine.
-
-* Other logs can be written to a shared volume.
-
-* Process information and metrics are visible from the host.
-
-_Let's save logging, volumes ... for later, but let's have a look at process information!_
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Viewing container processes from the host
-
-If you run Docker on Linux, container processes are visible on the host.
-
-```bash
-$ ps faux | less
-```
-
-* Scroll around the output of this command.
-
-* You should see the `jpetazzo/clock` container.
-
-* A containerized process is just like any other process on the host.
-
-* We can use tools like `lsof`, `strace`, `gdb` ... To analyze them.
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## What's the difference between a container process and a host process?
-
-* Each process (containerized or not) belongs to *namespaces* and *cgroups*.
-
-* The namespaces and cgroups determine what a process can "see" and "do".
-
-* Analogy: each process (containerized or not) runs with a specific UID (user ID).
-
-* UID=0 is root, and has elevated privileges. Other UIDs are normal users.
-
-_We will give more details about namespaces and cgroups later._
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Getting a shell in a running container
-
-* Sometimes, we need to get a shell anyway.
-
-* We _could_ run some SSH server in the container ...
-
-* But it is easier to use `docker exec`.
-
-```bash
-$ docker exec -ti ticktock sh
-```
-
-* This creates a new process (running `sh`) _inside_ the container.
-
-* This can also be done "manually" with the tool `nsenter`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Caveats
-
-* The tool that you want to run needs to exist in the container.
-
-* Some tools (like `ip netns exec`) let you attach to _one_ namespace at a time.
-
-  (This lets you e.g. setup network interfaces, even if you don't have `ifconfig` or `ip` in the container.)
-
-* Most importantly: the container needs to be running.
-
-* What if the container is stopped or crashed?
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Getting a shell in a stopped container
-
-* A stopped container is only _storage_ (like a disk drive).
-
-* We cannot SSH into a disk drive or USB stick!
-
-* We need to connect the disk to a running machine.
-
-* How does that translate into the container world?
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Analyzing a stopped container
-
-As an exercise, we are going to try to find out what's wrong with `jpetazzo/crashtest`.
-
-```bash
-docker run jpetazzo/crashtest
-```
-
-The container starts, but then stops immediately, without any output.
-
-What would MacGyver&trade; do?
-
-First, let's check the status of that container.
-
-```bash
-docker ps -l
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Viewing filesystem changes
-
-* We can use `docker diff` to see files that were added / changed / removed.
-
-```bash
-docker diff <container_id>
-```
-
-* The container ID was shown by `docker ps -l`.
-
-* We can also see it with `docker ps -lq`.
-
-* The output of `docker diff` shows some interesting log files!
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Accessing files
-
-* We can extract files with `docker cp`.
-
-```bash
-docker cp <container_id>:/var/log/nginx/error.log .
-```
-
-* Then we can look at that log file.
-
-```bash
-cat error.log
-```
-
-(The directory `/run/nginx` doesn't exist.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-## Exploring a crashed container
-
-* We can restart a container with `docker start` ...
-
-* ... But it will probably crash again immediately!
-
-* We cannot specify a different program to run with `docker start`
-
-* But we can create a new image from the crashed container
-
-```bash
-docker commit <container_id> debugimage
-```
-
-* Then we can run a new container from that image, with a custom entrypoint
-
-```bash
-docker run -ti --entrypoint sh debugimage
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Obtaining a complete dump
-
-* We can also dump the entire filesystem of a container.
-
-* This is done with `docker export`.
-
-* It generates a tar archive.
-
-```bash
-docker export <container_id> | tar tv
-```
-
-This will give a detailed listing of the content of the container.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Troubleshooting and getting inside a container
-:FR:- Inspecter un conteneur en détail, en *live* ou *post-mortem*
-
-.debug[[containers/Getting_Inside.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Getting_Inside.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/container-housing.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-container-networking-basics
-class: title
-
- Container networking basics
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-getting-inside-a-container)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-5)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-container-network-drivers)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Container networking basics
-
-![A dense graph network](images/title-container-networking-basics.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-We will now run network services (accepting requests) in containers.
-
-At the end of this section, you will be able to:
-
-* Run a network service in a container.
-
-* Connect to that network service.
-
-* Find a container's IP address.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Running a very simple service
-
-- We need something small, simple, easy to configure
-
-  (or, even better, that doesn't require any configuration at all)
-
-- Let's use the official NGINX image (named `nginx`)
-
-- It runs a static web server listening on port 80
-
-- It serves a default "Welcome to nginx!" page
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Running an NGINX server
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d -P nginx
-66b1ce719198711292c8f34f84a7b68c3876cf9f67015e752b94e189d35a204e
-```
-
-- Docker will automatically pull the `nginx` image from the Docker Hub
-
-- `-d` / `--detach` tells Docker to run it in the background
-
-- `P` / `--publish-all` tells Docker to publish all ports
-
-  (publish = make them reachable from other computers)
-
-- ...OK, how do we connect to our web server now?
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Finding our web server port
-
-- First, we need to find the *port number* used by Docker
-
-  (the NGINX container listens on port 80, but this port will be *mapped*)
-
-- We can use `docker ps`:
-  ```bash
-  $ docker ps
-  CONTAINER ID  IMAGE  ...  PORTS                  ...
-  e40ffb406c9e  nginx  ...  0.0.0.0:`12345`->80/tcp  ...
-  ```
-
-- This means:
-
-  *port 12345 on the Docker host is mapped to port 80 in the container*
-
-- Now we need to connect to the Docker host!
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Finding the address of the Docker host
-
-- When running Docker on your Linux workstation:
-
-  *use `localhost`, or any IP address of your machine*
-
-- When running Docker on a remote Linux server:
-
-  *use any IP address of the remote machine*
-
-- When running Docker Desktop on Mac or Windows:
-
-  *use `localhost`*
-
-- In other scenarios (`docker-machine`, local VM...):
-
-  *use the IP address of the Docker VM*
-  
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Connecting to our web server (GUI)
-
-Point your browser to the IP address of your Docker host, on the port
-shown by `docker ps` for container port 80.
-
-![Screenshot](images/welcome-to-nginx.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Connecting to our web server (CLI)
-
-You can also use `curl` directly from the Docker host.
-
-Make sure to use the right port number if it is different
-from the example below:
-
-```bash
-$ curl localhost:12345
-<!DOCTYPE html>
-<html>
-<head>
-<title>Welcome to nginx!</title>
-...
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## How does Docker know which port to map?
-
-* There is metadata in the image telling "this image has something on port 80".
-
-* We can see that metadata with `docker inspect`:
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect --format '{{.Config.ExposedPorts}}' nginx
-map[80/tcp:{}]
-```
-
-* This metadata was set in the Dockerfile, with the `EXPOSE` keyword.
-
-* We can see that with `docker history`:
-
-```bash
-$ docker history nginx
-IMAGE               CREATED             CREATED BY
-7f70b30f2cc6        11 days ago         /bin/sh -c #(nop)  CMD ["nginx" "-g" "…
-<missing>           11 days ago         /bin/sh -c #(nop)  STOPSIGNAL [SIGTERM]
-<missing>           11 days ago         /bin/sh -c #(nop)  EXPOSE 80/tcp
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Why can't we just connect to port 80?
-
-- Our Docker host has only one port 80
-
-- Therefore, we can only have one container at a time on port 80
-
-- Therefore, if multiple containers want port 80, only one can get it
-
-- By default, containers *do not* get "their" port number, but a random one
-
-  (not "random" as "crypto random", but as "it depends on various factors")
-
-- We'll see later how to force a port number (including port 80!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Using multiple IP addresses
-
-*Hey, my network-fu is strong, and I have questions...*
-
-- Can I publish one container on 127.0.0.2:80, and another on 127.0.0.3:80?
-
-- My machine has multiple (public) IP addresses, let's say A.A.A.A and B.B.B.B.
-  <br/>
-  Can I have one container on A.A.A.A:80 and another on B.B.B.B:80?
-
-- I have a whole IPV4 subnet, can I allocate it to my containers?
-
-- What about IPV6?
-
-You can do all these things when running Docker directly on Linux.
-
-(On other platforms, *generally not*, but there are some exceptions.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Finding the web server port in a script
-
-Parsing the output of `docker ps` would be painful.
-
-There is a command to help us:
-
-```bash
-$ docker port <containerID> 80
-0.0.0.0:12345
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Manual allocation of port numbers
-
-If you want to set port numbers yourself, no problem:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d -p 80:80 nginx
-$ docker run -d -p 8000:80 nginx
-$ docker run -d -p 8080:80 -p 8888:80 nginx
-```
-
-* We are running three NGINX web servers.
-* The first one is exposed on port 80.
-* The second one is exposed on port 8000.
-* The third one is exposed on ports 8080 and 8888.
-
-Note: the convention is `port-on-host:port-on-container`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Plumbing containers into your infrastructure
-
-There are many ways to integrate containers in your network.
-
-* Start the container, letting Docker allocate a public port for it.
-  <br/>Then retrieve that port number and feed it to your configuration.
-
-* Pick a fixed port number in advance, when you generate your configuration.
-  <br/>Then start your container by setting the port numbers manually.
-
-* Use an orchestrator like Kubernetes or Swarm.
-  <br/>The orchestrator will provide its own networking facilities.
-
-Orchestrators typically provide mechanisms to enable direct container-to-container
-communication across hosts, and publishing/load balancing for inbound traffic.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Finding the container's IP address
-
-We can use the `docker inspect` command to find the IP address of the
-container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect --format '{{ .NetworkSettings.IPAddress }}' <yourContainerID>
-172.17.0.3
-```
-
-* `docker inspect` is an advanced command, that can retrieve a ton
-  of information about our containers.
-
-* Here, we provide it with a format string to extract exactly the
-  private IP address of the container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Pinging our container
-
-Let's try to ping our container *from another container.*
-
-```bash
-docker run alpine ping `<ipaddress>`
-PING 172.17.0.X (172.17.0.X): 56 data bytes
-64 bytes from 172.17.0.X: seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.106 ms
-64 bytes from 172.17.0.X: seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.250 ms
-64 bytes from 172.17.0.X: seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.188 ms
-```
-
-When running on Linux, we can even ping that IP address directly!
-
-(And connect to a container's ports even if they aren't published.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## How often do we use `-p` and `-P` ?
-
-- When running a stack of containers, we will often use Compose
-
-- Compose will take care of exposing containers
-
-  (through a `ports:` section in the `docker-compose.yml` file)
-
-- It is, however, fairly common to use `docker run -P` for a quick test
-
-- Or `docker run -p ...` when an image doesn't `EXPOSE` a port correctly
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-## Section summary
-
-We've learned how to:
-
-* Expose a network port.
-
-* Connect to an application running in a container.
-
-* Find a container's IP address.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Exposing single containers
-:FR:- Exposer un conteneur isolé
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Networking_Basics.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/containers-by-the-water.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-container-network-drivers
-class: title
-
- Container network drivers
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-container-networking-basics)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-5)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-the-container-network-model)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Container network drivers
-
-The Docker Engine supports different network drivers.
-
-The built-in drivers include:
-
-* `bridge` (default)
-
-* `null` (for the special network called `none`)
-
-* `host` (for the special network called `host`)
-
-* `container` (that one is a bit magic!)
-
-The network is selected with `docker run --net ...`.
-
-Each network is managed by a driver.
-
-The different drivers are explained with more details on the following slides.
-
-.debug[[containers/Network_Drivers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Network_Drivers.md)]
----
-
-## The default bridge
-
-* By default, the container gets a virtual `eth0` interface.
-  <br/>(In addition to its own private `lo` loopback interface.)
-
-* That interface is provided by a `veth` pair.
-
-* It is connected to the Docker bridge.
-  <br/>(Named `docker0` by default; configurable with `--bridge`.)
-
-* Addresses are allocated on a private, internal subnet.
-  <br/>(Docker uses 172.17.0.0/16 by default; configurable with `--bip`.)
-
-* Outbound traffic goes through an iptables MASQUERADE rule.
-
-* Inbound traffic goes through an iptables DNAT rule.
-
-* The container can have its own routes, iptables rules, etc.
-
-.debug[[containers/Network_Drivers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Network_Drivers.md)]
----
-
-## The null driver
-
-* Container is started with `docker run --net none ...`
-
-* It only gets the `lo` loopback interface. No `eth0`.
-
-* It can't send or receive network traffic.
-
-* Useful for isolated/untrusted workloads.
-
-.debug[[containers/Network_Drivers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Network_Drivers.md)]
----
-
-## The host driver
-
-* Container is started with `docker run --net host ...`
-
-* It sees (and can access) the network interfaces of the host.
-
-* It can bind any address, any port (for ill and for good).
-
-* Network traffic doesn't have to go through NAT, bridge, or veth.
-
-* Performance = native!
-
-Use cases:
-
-* Performance sensitive applications (VOIP, gaming, streaming...)
-
-* Peer discovery (e.g. Erlang port mapper, Raft, Serf...)
-
-.debug[[containers/Network_Drivers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Network_Drivers.md)]
----
-
-## The container driver
-
-* Container is started with `docker run --net container:id ...`
-
-* It re-uses the network stack of another container.
-
-* It shares with this other container the same interfaces, IP address(es), routes, iptables rules, etc.
-
-* Those containers can communicate over their `lo` interface.
-  <br/>(i.e. one can bind to 127.0.0.1 and the others can connect to it.)
-
-???
-
-:EN:Advanced container networking
-:EN:- Transparent network access with the "host" driver
-:EN:- Sharing is caring with the "container" driver
-
-:FR:Paramétrage réseau avancé
-:FR:- Accès transparent au réseau avec le mode "host"
-:FR:- Partage de la pile réseau avece le mode "container"
-
-.debug[[containers/Network_Drivers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Network_Drivers.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/distillery-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-the-container-network-model
-class: title
-
- The Container Network Model
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-container-network-drivers)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-5)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-service-discovery-with-containers)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# The Container Network Model
-
-![A denser graph network](images/title-the-container-network-model.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-We will learn about the CNM (Container Network Model).
-
-At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
-
-* Create a private network for a group of containers.
-
-* Use container naming to connect services together.
-
-* Dynamically connect and disconnect containers to networks.
-
-* Set the IP address of a container.
-
-We will also explain the principle of overlay networks and network plugins.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## The Container Network Model
-
-Docker has "networks".
-
-We can manage them with the `docker network` commands; for instance:
-
-```bash
-$ docker network ls
-NETWORK ID          NAME                DRIVER
-6bde79dfcf70        bridge              bridge
-8d9c78725538        none                null
-eb0eeab782f4        host                host
-4c1ff84d6d3f        blog-dev            overlay
-228a4355d548        blog-prod           overlay
-```
-
-New networks can be created (with `docker network create`).
-
-(Note: networks `none` and `host` are special; let's set them aside for now.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## What's a network?
-
-- Conceptually, a Docker "network" is a virtual switch
-
-  (we can also think about it like a VLAN, or a WiFi SSID, for instance)
-
-- By default, containers are connected to a single network
-
-  (but they can be connected to zero, or many networks, even dynamically)
-
-- Each network has its own subnet (IP address range)
-
-- A network can be local (to a single Docker Engine) or global (span multiple hosts)
-
-- Containers can have *network aliases* providing DNS-based service discovery
-
-  (and each network has its own "domain", "zone", or "scope")
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Service discovery
-
-- A container can be given a network alias
-
-  (e.g. with `docker run --net some-network --net-alias db ...`)
-
-- The containers running in the same network can resolve that network alias
-
-  (i.e. if they do a DNS lookup on `db`, it will give the container's address)
-
-- We can have a different `db` container in each network
-
-  (this avoids naming conflicts between different stacks)
-
-- When we name a container, it automatically adds the name as a network alias
-
-  (i.e. `docker run --name xyz ...` is like `docker run --net-alias xyz ...`
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Network isolation
-
-- Networks are isolated
-
-- By default, containers in network A cannot reach those in network B
-
-- A container connected to both networks A and B can act as a router or proxy
-
-- Published ports are always reachable through the Docker host address
-
-  (`docker run -P ...` makes a container port available to everyone)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## How to use networks
-
-- We typically create one network per "stack" or app that we deploy
-
-- More complex apps or stacks might require multiple networks
-
-  (e.g. `frontend`, `backend`, ...)
-
-- Networks allow us to deploy multiple copies of the same stack
-
-  (e.g. `prod`, `dev`, `pr-442`, ....)
-
-- If we use Docker Compose, this is managed automatically for us
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-![Multiple containers on the default bridge network, on a Linux machine](images/docker-networking-default-bridge-linux.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-![Multiple containers in multiple bridge networks, on a Linux machine](images/docker-networking-networks-linux.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-![Multiple containers in multiple bridge networks, on a Mac/Windows machine](images/docker-networking-networks-macwin.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## CNM vs CNI
-
-- CNM is the model used by Docker
-
-- Kubernetes uses a different model, architectured around CNI
-
-  (CNI is a kind of API between a container engine and *CNI plugins*)
-
-- Docker model:
-
-  - multiple isolated networks
-  - per-network service discovery
-  - network interconnection requires extra steps
-
-- Kubernetes model:
-
-  - single flat network
-  - per-namespace service discovery
-  - network isolation requires extra steps (Network Policies)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Creating a network
-
-Let's create a network called `dev`.
-
-```bash
-$ docker network create dev
-4c1ff84d6d3f1733d3e233ee039cac276f425a9d5228a4355d54878293a889ba
-```
-
-The network is now visible with the `network ls` command:
-
-```bash
-$ docker network ls
-NETWORK ID          NAME                DRIVER
-6bde79dfcf70        bridge              bridge
-8d9c78725538        none                null
-eb0eeab782f4        host                host
-4c1ff84d6d3f        dev                 bridge
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Placing containers on a network
-
-We will create a *named* container on this network.
-
-It will be reachable with its name, `es`.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d --name es --net dev elasticsearch:2
-8abb80e229ce8926c7223beb69699f5f34d6f1d438bfc5682db893e798046863
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Communication between containers
-
-Now, create another container on this network.
-
-.small[
-```bash
-$ docker run -ti --net dev alpine sh
-root@0ecccdfa45ef:/#
-```
-]
-
-From this new container, we can resolve and ping the other one, using its assigned name:
-
-.small[
-```bash
-/ # ping es
-PING es (172.18.0.2) 56(84) bytes of data.
-64 bytes from es.dev (172.18.0.2): icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.221 ms
-64 bytes from es.dev (172.18.0.2): icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.114 ms
-64 bytes from es.dev (172.18.0.2): icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.114 ms
-^C
---- es ping statistics ---
-3 packets transmitted, 3 received, 0% packet loss, time 2000ms
-rtt min/avg/max/mdev = 0.114/0.149/0.221/0.052 ms
-root@0ecccdfa45ef:/#
-```
-]
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Resolving container addresses
-
-Since Docker Engine 1.10, name resolution is implemented by a dynamic resolver.
-
-Archeological note: when CNM was intoduced (in Docker Engine 1.9, November 2015)
-name resolution was implemented with `/etc/hosts`, and it was updated each time
-CONTAINERs were added/removed. This could cause interesting race conditions
-since `/etc/hosts` was a bind-mount (and couldn't be updated atomically).
-
-.small[
-```bash
-[root@0ecccdfa45ef /]# cat /etc/hosts
-172.18.0.3  0ecccdfa45ef
-127.0.0.1       localhost
-::1     localhost ip6-localhost ip6-loopback
-fe00::0 ip6-localnet
-ff00::0 ip6-mcastprefix
-ff02::1 ip6-allnodes
-ff02::2 ip6-allrouters
-172.18.0.2      es
-172.18.0.2      es.dev
-```
-]
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/lots-of-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-service-discovery-with-containers
-class: title
-
- Service discovery with containers
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-the-container-network-model)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-5)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-ambassadors)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-# Service discovery with containers
-
-* Let's try to run an application that requires two containers.
-
-* The first container is a web server.
-
-* The other one is a redis data store.
-
-* We will place them both on the `dev` network created before.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Running the web server
-
-* The application is provided by the container image `jpetazzo/trainingwheels`.
-
-* We don't know much about it so we will try to run it and see what happens!
-
-Start the container, exposing all its ports:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --net dev -d -P jpetazzo/trainingwheels
-```
-
-Check the port that has been allocated to it:
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -l
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Test the web server
-
-* If we connect to the application now, we will see an error page:
-
-![Trainingwheels error](images/trainingwheels-error.png)
-
-* This is because the Redis service is not running.
-* This container tries to resolve the name `redis`.
-
-Note: we're not using a FQDN or an IP address here; just `redis`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Start the data store
-
-* We need to start a Redis container.
-
-* That container must be on the same network as the web server.
-
-* It must have the right network alias (`redis`) so the application can find it.
-
-Start the container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --net dev --net-alias redis -d redis
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Test the web server again
-
-* If we connect to the application now, we should see that the app is working correctly:
-
-![Trainingwheels OK](images/trainingwheels-ok.png)
-
-* When the app tries to resolve `redis`, instead of getting a DNS error, it gets the IP address of our Redis container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## A few words on *scope*
-
-- Container names are unique (there can be only one `--name redis`)
-
-- Network aliases are not unique
-
-- We can have the same network alias in different networks:
-  ```bash
-  docker run --net dev --net-alias redis ...
-  docker run --net prod --net-alias redis ...
-  ```
-
-- We can even have multiple containers with the same alias in the same network
-
-  (in that case, we get multiple DNS entries, aka "DNS round robin")
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Names are *local* to each network
-
-Let's try to ping our `es` container from another container, when that other container is *not* on the `dev` network.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --rm alpine ping es
-ping: bad address 'es'
-```
-
-Names can be resolved only when containers are on the same network.
-
-Containers can contact each other only when they are on the same network (you can try to ping using the IP address to verify).
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Network aliases
-
-We would like to have another network, `prod`, with its own `es` container. But there can be only one container named `es`!
-
-We will use *network aliases*.
-
-A container can have multiple network aliases.
-
-Network aliases are *local* to a given network (only exist in this network).
-
-Multiple containers can have the same network alias (even on the same network).
-
-Since Docker Engine 1.11, resolving a network alias yields the IP addresses of all containers holding this alias.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Creating containers on another network
-
-Create the `prod` network.
-
-```bash
-$ docker network create prod
-5a41562fecf2d8f115bedc16865f7336232a04268bdf2bd816aecca01b68d50c
-```
-
-We can now create multiple containers with the `es` alias on the new `prod` network.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d --name prod-es-1 --net-alias es --net prod elasticsearch:2
-38079d21caf0c5533a391700d9e9e920724e89200083df73211081c8a356d771
-$ docker run -d --name prod-es-2 --net-alias es --net prod elasticsearch:2
-1820087a9c600f43159688050dcc164c298183e1d2e62d5694fd46b10ac3bc3d
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Resolving network aliases
-
-Let's try DNS resolution first, using the `nslookup` tool that ships with the `alpine` image.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --net prod --rm alpine nslookup es
-Name:      es
-Address 1: 172.23.0.3 prod-es-2.prod
-Address 2: 172.23.0.2 prod-es-1.prod
-```
-
-(You can ignore the `can't resolve '(null)'` errors.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Connecting to aliased containers
-
-Each ElasticSearch instance has a name (generated when it is started). This name can be seen when we issue a simple HTTP request on the ElasticSearch API endpoint.
-
-Try the following command a few times:
-
-.small[
-```bash
-$ docker run --rm --net dev centos curl -s es:9200
-{
-  "name" : "Tarot",
-...
-}
-```
-]
-
-Then try it a few times by replacing `--net dev` with `--net prod`:
-
-.small[
-```bash
-$ docker run --rm --net prod centos curl -s es:9200
-{
-  "name" : "The Symbiote",
-...
-}
-```
-]
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Good to know ...
-
-* Docker will not create network names and aliases on the default `bridge` network.
-
-* Therefore, if you want to use those features, you have to create a custom network first.
-
-* Network aliases are *not* unique on a given network.
-
-* i.e., multiple containers can have the same alias on the same network.
-
-* In that scenario, the Docker DNS server will return multiple records.
-  <br/>
-  (i.e. you will get DNS round robin out of the box.)
-
-* Enabling *Swarm Mode* gives access to clustering and load balancing with IPVS.
-
-* Creation of networks and network aliases is generally automated with tools like Compose.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## A few words about round robin DNS
-
-Don't rely exclusively on round robin DNS to achieve load balancing.
-
-Many factors can affect DNS resolution, and you might see:
-
-- all traffic going to a single instance;
-- traffic being split (unevenly) between some instances;
-- different behavior depending on your application language;
-- different behavior depending on your base distro;
-- different behavior depending on other factors (sic).
-
-It's OK to use DNS to discover available endpoints, but remember that you have to re-resolve every now and then to discover new endpoints.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Custom networks
-
-When creating a network, extra options can be provided.
-
-* `--internal` disables outbound traffic (the network won't have a default gateway).
-
-* `--gateway` indicates which address to use for the gateway (when outbound traffic is allowed).
-
-* `--subnet` (in CIDR notation) indicates the subnet to use.
-
-* `--ip-range` (in CIDR notation) indicates the subnet to allocate from.
-
-* `--aux-address` allows specifying a list of reserved addresses (which won't be allocated to containers).
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Setting containers' IP address
-
-* It is possible to set a container's address with `--ip`.
-* The IP address has to be within the subnet used for the container.
-
-A full example would look like this.
-
-```bash
-$ docker network create --subnet 10.66.0.0/16 pubnet
-42fb16ec412383db6289a3e39c3c0224f395d7f85bcb1859b279e7a564d4e135
-$ docker run --net pubnet --ip 10.66.66.66 -d nginx
-b2887adeb5578a01fd9c55c435cad56bbbe802350711d2743691f95743680b09
-```
-
-*Note: don't hard code container IP addresses in your code!*
-
-*I repeat: don't hard code container IP addresses in your code!*
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Network drivers
-
-* A network is managed by a *driver*.
-
-* The built-in drivers include:
-
-  * `bridge` (default)
-  * `none`
-  * `host`
-  * `macvlan`
-  * `overlay` (for Swarm clusters)
-
-* More drivers can be provided by plugins (OVS, VLAN...)
-
-* A network can have a custom IPAM (IP allocator).
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Overlay networks
-
-* The features we've seen so far only work when all containers are on a single host.
-
-* If containers span multiple hosts, we need an *overlay* network to connect them together.
-
-* Docker ships with a default network plugin, `overlay`, implementing an overlay network leveraging
-  VXLAN, *enabled with Swarm Mode*.
-
-* Other plugins (Weave, Calico...) can provide overlay networks as well.
-
-* Once you have an overlay network, *all the features that we've used in this chapter work identically
-  across multiple hosts.*
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Multi-host networking (overlay)
-
-Out of the scope for this intro-level workshop!
-
-Very short instructions:
-
-- enable Swarm Mode (`docker swarm init` then `docker swarm join` on other nodes)
-- `docker network create mynet --driver overlay`
-- `docker service create --network mynet myimage`
-
-If you want to learn more about Swarm mode, you can check
-[this video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EuzoEaE6Cqs)
-or [these slides](https://container.training/swarm-selfpaced.yml.html).
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Multi-host networking (plugins)
-
-Out of the scope for this intro-level workshop!
-
-General idea:
-
-- install the plugin (they often ship within containers)
-
-- run the plugin (if it's in a container, it will often require extra parameters; don't just `docker run` it blindly!)
-
-- some plugins require configuration or activation (creating a special file that tells Docker "use the plugin whose control socket is at the following location")
-
-- you can then `docker network create --driver pluginname`
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Connecting and disconnecting dynamically
-
-* So far, we have specified which network to use when starting the container.
-
-* The Docker Engine also allows connecting and disconnecting while the container is running.
-
-* This feature is exposed through the Docker API, and through two Docker CLI commands:
-
-  * `docker network connect <network> <container>`
-
-  * `docker network disconnect <network> <container>`
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Dynamically connecting to a network
-
-* We have a container named `es` connected to a network named `dev`.
-
-* Let's start a simple alpine container on the default network:
-
-  ```bash
-  $ docker run -ti alpine sh
-  / #
-  ```
-
-* In this container, try to ping the `es` container:
-
-  ```bash
-  / # ping es
-  ping: bad address 'es'
-  ```
-
-  This doesn't work, but we will change that by connecting the container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Finding the container ID and connecting it
-
-* Figure out the ID of our alpine container; here are two methods:
-
-  * looking at `/etc/hostname` in the container,
-
-  * running `docker ps -lq` on the host.
-
-* Run the following command on the host:
-
-  ```bash
-  $ docker network connect dev `<container_id>`
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Checking what we did
-
-* Try again to `ping es` from the container.
-
-* It should now work correctly:
-
-  ```bash
-  / # ping es
-  PING es (172.20.0.3): 56 data bytes
-  64 bytes from 172.20.0.3: seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.376 ms
-  64 bytes from 172.20.0.3: seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.130 ms
-  ^C
-  ```
-
-* Interrupt it with Ctrl-C.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Looking at the network setup in the container
-
-We can look at the list of network interfaces with `ifconfig`, `ip a`, or `ip l`:
-
-.small[
-```bash
-/ # ip a
-1: lo: <LOOPBACK,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 65536 qdisc noqueue state UNKNOWN qlen 1000
-    link/loopback 00:00:00:00:00:00 brd 00:00:00:00:00:00
-    inet 127.0.0.1/8 scope host lo
-       valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
-18: eth0@if19: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP,M-DOWN> mtu 1500 qdisc noqueue state UP
-    link/ether 02:42:ac:11:00:02 brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
-    inet 172.17.0.2/16 brd 172.17.255.255 scope global eth0
-       valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
-20: eth1@if21: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP,M-DOWN> mtu 1500 qdisc noqueue state UP
-    link/ether 02:42:ac:14:00:04 brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
-    inet 172.20.0.4/16 brd 172.20.255.255 scope global eth1
-       valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever
-/ #
-```
-]
-
-Each network connection is materialized with a virtual network interface.
-
-As we can see, we can be connected to multiple networks at the same time.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-## Disconnecting from a network
-
-* Let's try the symmetrical command to disconnect the container:
-  ```bash
-  $ docker network disconnect dev <container_id>
-  ```
-
-* From now on, if we try to ping `es`, it will not resolve:
-  ```bash
-  / # ping es
-  ping: bad address 'es'
-  ```
-
-* Trying to ping the IP address directly won't work either:
-  ```bash
-  / # ping 172.20.0.3
-  ... (nothing happens until we interrupt it with Ctrl-C)
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Network aliases are scoped per network
-
-* Each network has its own set of network aliases.
-
-* We saw this earlier: `es` resolves to different addresses in `dev` and `prod`.
-
-* If we are connected to multiple networks, the resolver looks up names in each of them
-  (as of Docker Engine 18.03, it is the connection order) and stops as soon as the name
-  is found.
-
-* Therefore, if we are connected to both `dev` and `prod`, resolving `es` will **not**
-  give us the addresses of all the `es` services; but only the ones in `dev` or `prod`.
-
-* However, we can lookup `es.dev` or `es.prod` if we need to.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Finding out about our networks and names
-
-* We can do reverse DNS lookups on containers' IP addresses.
-
-* If the IP address belongs to a network (other than the default bridge), the result will be:
-
-  ```
-  name-or-first-alias-or-container-id.network-name
-  ```
-
-* Example:
-
-.small[
-```bash
-$ docker run -ti --net prod --net-alias hello alpine
-/ # apk add --no-cache drill
-...
-OK: 5 MiB in 13 packages
-/ # ifconfig
-eth0      Link encap:Ethernet  HWaddr 02:42:AC:15:00:03
-          inet addr:`172.21.0.3`  Bcast:172.21.255.255  Mask:255.255.0.0
-          UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST  MTU:1500  Metric:1
-...
-/ # drill -t ptr `3.0.21.172`.in-addr.arpa
-...
-;; ANSWER SECTION:
-3.0.21.172.in-addr.arpa.	600	IN	PTR	`hello.prod`.
-...
-```
-]
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Building with a custom network
-
-* We can build a Dockerfile with a custom network with `docker build --network NAME`.
-
-* This can be used to check that a build doesn't access the network.
-
-  (But keep in mind that most Dockerfiles will fail,
-  <br/>because they need to install remote packages and dependencies!)
-
-* This may be used to access an internal package repository.
-
-  (But try to use a multi-stage build instead, if possible!)
-
-???
-
-:EN:Container networking essentials
-:EN:- The Container Network Model
-:EN:- Container isolation
-:EN:- Service discovery
-
-:FR:Mettre ses conteneurs en réseau
-:FR:- Le "Container Network Model"
-:FR:- Isolation des conteneurs
-:FR:- *Service discovery*
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Network_Model.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Network_Model.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/plastic-containers.JPG)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-ambassadors
-class: title
-
- Ambassadors
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-service-discovery-with-containers)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-5)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-local-development-workflow-with-docker)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Ambassadors
-
-![Two serious-looking persons shaking hands](images/title-ambassador.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## The ambassador pattern
-
-Ambassadors are containers that "masquerade" or "proxy" for another service.
-
-They abstract the connection details for this services, and can help with:
-
-* discovery (where is my service actually running?)
-
-* migration (what if my service has to be moved while I use it?)
-
-* fail over (how do I know to which instance of a replicated service I should connect?)
-
-* load balancing (how do I spread my requests across multiple instances of a service?)
-
-* authentication (what if my service requires credentials, certificates, or otherwise?)
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Introduction to Ambassadors
-
-The ambassador pattern:
-
-* Takes advantage of Docker's per-container naming system and abstracts
-  connections between services.
-
-* Allows you to manage services without hard-coding connection
-  information inside applications.
-
-To do this, instead of directly connecting containers you insert
-ambassador containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-![ambassador](images/ambassador-diagram.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Interacting with ambassadors
-
-* The web container uses normal Docker networking to connect
-  to the ambassador.
-
-* The database container also talks with an ambassador.
-
-* For both containers, the ambassador is totally transparent.
-  <br/>
-  (There is no difference between normal
-  operation and operation with an ambassador.)
-
-* If the database container is moved (or a failover happens), its new location will
-  be tracked by the ambassador containers, and the web application
-  container will still be able to connect, without reconfiguration.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Ambassadors for simple service discovery
-
-Use case:
-
-* my application code connects to `redis` on the default port (6379),
-* my Redis service runs on another machine, on a non-default port (e.g. 12345),
-* I want to use an ambassador to let my application connect without modification.
-
-The ambassador will be:
-
-* a container running right next to my application,
-* using the name `redis` (or linked as `redis`),
-* listening on port 6379,
-* forwarding connections to the actual Redis service.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Ambassadors for service migration
-
-Use case:
-
-* my application code still connects to `redis`,
-* my Redis service runs somewhere else,
-* my Redis service is moved to a different host+port,
-* the location of the Redis service is given to me via e.g. DNS SRV records,
-* I want to use an ambassador to automatically connect to the new location, with as little disruption as possible.
-
-The ambassador will be:
-
-* the same kind of container as before,
-* running an additional routine to monitor DNS SRV records,
-* updating the forwarding destination when the DNS SRV records are updated.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Ambassadors for credentials injection
-
-Use case:
-
-* my application code still connects to `redis`,
-* my application code doesn't provide Redis credentials,
-* my production Redis service requires credentials,
-* my staging Redis service requires different credentials,
-* I want to use an ambassador to abstract those credentials.
-
-The ambassador will be:
-
-* a container using the name `redis` (or a link),
-* passed the credentials to use,
-* running a custom proxy that accepts connections on Redis default port,
-* performing authentication with the target Redis service before forwarding traffic.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Ambassadors for load balancing
-
-Use case:
-
-* my application code connects to a web service called `api`,
-* I want to run multiple instances of the `api` backend,
-* those instances will be on different machines and ports,
-* I want to use an ambassador to abstract those details.
-
-The ambassador will be:
-
-* a container using the name `api` (or a link),
-* passed the list of backends to use (statically or dynamically),
-* running a load balancer (e.g. HAProxy or NGINX),
-* dispatching requests across all backends transparently.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## "Ambassador" is a *pattern*
-
-There are many ways to implement the pattern.
-
-Different deployments will use different underlying technologies.
-
-* On-premise deployments with a trusted network can track
-  container locations in e.g. Zookeeper, and generate HAproxy
-  configurations each time a location key changes.
-* Public cloud deployments or deployments across unsafe
-  networks can add TLS encryption.
-* Ad-hoc deployments can use a master-less discovery protocol
-  like avahi to register and discover services.
-* It is also possible to do one-shot reconfiguration of the
-  ambassadors. It is slightly less dynamic but has far fewer
-  requirements.
-* Ambassadors can be used in addition to, or instead of, overlay networks.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Service meshes
-
-* A service mesh is a configurable network layer.
-
-* It can provide service discovery, high availability, load balancing, observability...
-
-* Service meshes are particularly useful for microservices applications.
-
-* Service meshes are often implemented as proxies.
-
-* Applications connect to the service mesh, which relays the connection where needed.
-
-*Does that sound familiar?*
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Ambassadors and service meshes
-
-* When using a service mesh, a "sidecar container" is often used as a proxy
-
-* Our services connect (transparently) to that sidecar container
-
-* That sidecar container figures out where to forward the traffic
-
-... Does that sound familiar?
-
-(It should, because service meshes are essentially app-wide or cluster-wide ambassadors!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Some popular service meshes
-
-... And related projects:
-
-* [Consul Connect](https://www.consul.io/docs/connect/index.html)
-  <br/>
-  Transparently secures service-to-service connections with mTLS.
-
-* [Gloo](https://gloo.solo.io/)
-  <br/>
-  API gateway that can interconnect applications on VMs, containers, and serverless.
-
-* [Istio](https://istio.io/)
-  <br/>
-  A popular service mesh.
-
-* [Linkerd](https://linkerd.io/)
-  <br/>
-  Another popular service mesh.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-## Learning more about service meshes
-
-A few blog posts about service meshes:
-
-* [Containers, microservices, and service meshes](http://jpetazzo.github.io/2019/05/17/containers-microservices-service-meshes/)
-  <br/>
-  Provides historical context: how did we do before service meshes were invented?
-
-* [Do I Need a Service Mesh?](https://www.nginx.com/blog/do-i-need-a-service-mesh/)
-  <br/>
-  Explains the purpose of service meshes. Illustrates some NGINX features.
-
-* [Do you need a service mesh?](https://www.oreilly.com/ideas/do-you-need-a-service-mesh)
-  <br/>
-  Includes high-level overview and definitions.
-
-* [What is Service Mesh and Why Do We Need It?](https://containerjournal.com/2018/12/12/what-is-service-mesh-and-why-do-we-need-it/)
-  <br/>
-  Includes a step-by-step demo of Linkerd.
-
-And a video:
-
-* [What is a Service Mesh, and Do I Need One When Developing Microservices?](https://www.datawire.io/envoyproxy/service-mesh/)
-
-.debug[[containers/Ambassadors.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ambassadors.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/train-of-containers-1.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-local-development-workflow-with-docker
-class: title
-
- Local development workflow with Docker
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-ambassadors)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-6)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-windows-containers)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Local development workflow with Docker
-
-![Construction site](images/title-local-development-workflow-with-docker.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-At the end of this section, you will be able to:
-
-* Share code between container and host.
-
-* Use a simple local development workflow.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Local development in a container
-
-We want to solve the following issues:
-
-- "Works on my machine"
-
-- "Not the same version"
-
-- "Missing dependency"
-
-By using Docker containers, we will get a consistent development environment.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Working on the "namer" application
-
-* We have to work on some application whose code is at:
-
-  https://github.com/jpetazzo/namer.
-
-* What is it? We don't know yet!
-
-* Let's download the code.
-
-```bash
-$ git clone https://github.com/jpetazzo/namer
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Looking at the code
-
-```bash
-$ cd namer
-$ ls -1
-company_name_generator.rb
-config.ru
-docker-compose.yml
-Dockerfile
-Gemfile
-```
-
---
-
-Aha, a `Gemfile`! This is Ruby. Probably. We know this. Maybe?
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Looking at the `Dockerfile`
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM ruby
-
-COPY . /src
-WORKDIR /src
-RUN bundler install
-
-CMD ["rackup", "--host", "0.0.0.0"]
-EXPOSE 9292
-```
-
-* This application is using a base `ruby` image.
-* The code is copied in `/src`.
-* Dependencies are installed with `bundler`.
-* The application is started with `rackup`.
-* It is listening on port 9292.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Building and running the "namer" application
-
-* Let's build the application with the `Dockerfile`!
-
---
-
-```bash
-$ docker build -t namer .
-```
-
---
-
-* Then run it. *We need to expose its ports.*
-
---
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -dP namer
-```
-
---
-
-* Check on which port the container is listening.
-
---
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -l
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Connecting to our application
-
-* Point our browser to our Docker node, on the port allocated to the container.
-
---
-
-* Hit "reload" a few times.
-
---
-
-* This is an enterprise-class, carrier-grade, ISO-compliant company name generator!
-
-  (With 50% more bullshit than the average competition!)
-
-  (Wait, was that 50% more, or 50% less? *Anyway!*)
-
-  ![web application 1](images/webapp-in-blue.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Making changes to the code
-
-Option 1:
-
-* Edit the code locally
-* Rebuild the image
-* Re-run the container
-
-Option 2:
-
-* Enter the container (with `docker exec`)
-* Install an editor
-* Make changes from within the container
-
-Option 3:
-
-* Use a *bind mount* to share local files with the container
-* Make changes locally
-* Changes are reflected in the container
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Our first volume
-
-We will tell Docker to map the current directory to `/src` in the container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d -v $(pwd):/src -P namer
-```
-
-* `-d`: the container should run in detached mode (in the background).
-
-* `-v`: the following host directory should be mounted inside the container.
-
-* `-P`: publish all the ports exposed by this image.
-
-* `namer` is the name of the image we will run.
-
-* We don't specify a command to run because it is already set in the Dockerfile via `CMD`.
-
-Note: on Windows, replace `$(pwd)` with `%cd%` (or `${pwd}` if you use PowerShell).
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Mounting volumes inside containers
-
-The `-v` flag mounts a directory from your host into your Docker container.
-
-The flag structure is:
-
-```bash
-[host-path]:[container-path]:[rw|ro]
-```
-
-* `[host-path]` and `[container-path]` are created if they don't exist.
-
-* You can control the write status of the volume with the `ro` and
-  `rw` options.
-
-* If you don't specify `rw` or `ro`, it will be `rw` by default.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Hold your horses... and your mounts
-
-- The `-v /path/on/host:/path/in/container` syntax is the "old" syntax
-
-- The modern syntax looks like this:
-
-  `--mount type=bind,source=/path/on/host,target=/path/in/container`
-
-- `--mount` is more explicit, but `-v` is quicker to type
-
-- `--mount` supports all mount types; `-v` doesn't support `tmpfs` mounts
-
-- `--mount` fails if the path on the host doesn't exist; `-v` creates it
-
-With the new syntax, our command becomes:
-```bash
-docker run --mount=type=bind,source=$(pwd),target=/src -dP namer
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Testing the development container
-
-* Check the port used by our new container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker ps -l
-CONTAINER ID  IMAGE  COMMAND  CREATED        STATUS  PORTS                   NAMES
-045885b68bc5  namer  rackup   3 seconds ago  Up ...  0.0.0.0:32770->9292/tcp ...
-```
-
-* Open the application in your web browser.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Making a change to our application
-
-Our customer really doesn't like the color of our text. Let's change it.
-
-```bash
-$ vi company_name_generator.rb
-```
-
-And change
-
-```css
-color: royalblue;
-```
-
-To:
-
-```css
-color: red;
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Viewing our changes
-
-* Reload the application in our browser.
-
---
-
-* The color should have changed.
-
-  ![web application 2](images/webapp-in-red.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Understanding volumes
-
-- Volumes are *not* copying or synchronizing files between the host and the container
-
-- Changes made in the host are immediately visible in the container (and vice versa)
-
-- When running on Linux:
-
-  - volumes and bind mounts correspond to directories on the host
-
-  - if Docker runs in a Linux VM, these directories are in the Linux VM
-
-- When running on Docker Desktop:
-
-  - volumes correspond to directories in a small Linux VM running Docker
-
-  - access to bind mounts is translated to host filesystem access
-    <br/>
-    (a bit like a network filesystem)
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Docker Desktop caveats
-
-- When running Docker natively on Linux, accessing a mount = native I/O
-
-- When running Docker Desktop, accessing a bind mount = file access translation
-
-- That file access translation has relatively good performance *in general*
-
-  (watch out, however, for that big `npm install` working on a bind mount!)
-
-- There are some corner cases when watching files (with mechanisms like inotify)
-
-- Features like "live reload" or programs like `entr` don't always behave properly
-
-  (due to e.g. file attribute caching, and other interesting details!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Trash your servers and burn your code
-
-*(This is the title of a
-[2013 blog post][immutable-deployments]
-by Chad Fowler, where he explains the concept of immutable infrastructure.)*
-
-[immutable-deployments]: https://web.archive.org/web/20160305073617/http://chadfowler.com/blog/2013/06/23/immutable-deployments/
-
---
-
-* Let's majorly mess up our container.
-
-  (Remove files or whatever.)
-
-* Now, how can we fix this?
-
---
-
-* Our old container (with the blue version of the code) is still running.
-
-* See on which port it is exposed:
-  ```bash
-  docker ps
-  ```
-
-* Point our browser to it to confirm that it still works fine.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Immutable infrastructure in a nutshell
-
-* Instead of *updating* a server, we deploy a new one.
-
-* This might be challenging with classical servers, but it's trivial with containers.
-
-* In fact, with Docker, the most logical workflow is to build a new image and run it.
-
-* If something goes wrong with the new image, we can always restart the old one.
-
-* We can even keep both versions running side by side.
-
-If this pattern sounds interesting, you might want to read about *blue/green deployment*
-and *canary deployments*.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Recap of the development workflow
-
-1. Write a Dockerfile to build an image containing our development environment.
-   <br/>
-   (Rails, Django, ... and all the dependencies for our app)
-
-2. Start a container from that image.
-   <br/>
-   Use the `-v` flag to mount our source code inside the container.
-
-3. Edit the source code outside the container, using familiar tools.
-   <br/>
-   (vim, emacs, textmate...)
-
-4. Test the application.
-   <br/>
-   (Some frameworks pick up changes automatically.
-   <br/>Others require you to Ctrl-C + restart after each modification.)
-
-5. Iterate and repeat steps 3 and 4 until satisfied.
-
-6. When done, commit+push source code changes.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Debugging inside the container
-
-Docker has a command called `docker exec`.
-
-It allows users to run a new process in a container which is already running.
-
-If sometimes you find yourself wishing you could SSH into a container: you can use `docker exec` instead.
-
-You can get a shell prompt inside an existing container this way, or run an arbitrary process for automation.
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## `docker exec` example
-
-```bash
-$ # You can run ruby commands in the area the app is running and more!
-$ docker exec -it <yourContainerId> bash
-root@5ca27cf74c2e:/opt/namer# irb
-irb(main):001:0> [0, 1, 2, 3, 4].map {|x| x ** 2}.compact
-=> [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]
-irb(main):002:0> exit
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Stopping the container
-
-Now that we're done let's stop our container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker stop <yourContainerID>
-```
-
-And remove it.
-
-```bash
-$ docker rm <yourContainerID>
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-## Section summary
-
-We've learned how to:
-
-* Share code between container and host.
-
-* Set our working directory.
-
-* Use a simple local development workflow.
-
-???
-
-:EN:Developing with containers
-:EN:- “Containerize” a development environment
-
-:FR:Développer au jour le jour
-:FR:- « Containeriser » son environnement de développement
-
-.debug[[containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Local_Development_Workflow.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/train-of-containers-2.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-windows-containers
-class: title
-
- Windows Containers
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-local-development-workflow-with-docker)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-6)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-working-with-volumes)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-class: title
-
-# Windows Containers
-
-![Container with Windows](images/windows-containers.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-At the end of this section, you will be able to:
-
-* Understand Windows Container vs. Linux Container.
-
-* Know about the features of Docker for Windows for choosing architecture.
-
-* Run other container architectures via QEMU emulation.
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Are containers *just* for Linux?
-
-Remember that a container must run on the kernel of the OS it's on.
-
-- This is both a benefit and a limitation.
- 
-  (It makes containers lightweight, but limits them to a specific kernel.)
- 
-- At its launch in 2013, Docker did only support Linux, and only on amd64 CPUs.
-
-- Since then, many platforms and OS have been added.
-
-  (Windows, ARM, i386, IBM mainframes ...  But no macOS or iOS yet!)
-
---
-
-- Docker Desktop (macOS and Windows) can run containers for other architectures
-
-  (Check the docs to see how to [run a Raspberry Pi (ARM) or PPC container](https://docs.docker.com/docker-for-mac/multi-arch/)!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## History of Windows containers
-
-- Early 2016, Windows 10 gained support for running Windows binaries in containers.
-
-  - These are known as "Windows Containers"
-  
-  - Win 10 expects Docker for Windows to be installed for full features
-
-  - These must run in Hyper-V mini-VM's with a Windows Server x64 kernel 
-
-  - No "scratch" containers, so use "Core" and "Nano" Server OS base layers
-
-  - Since Hyper-V is required, Windows 10 Home won't work (yet...)
-
---
-
-- Late 2016, Windows Server 2016 ships with native Docker support
-
-  - Installed via PowerShell, doesn't need Docker for Windows
-
-  - Can run native (without VM), or with [Hyper-V Isolation](https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/virtualization/windowscontainers/manage-containers/hyperv-container)
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## LCOW (Linux Containers On Windows)
-
-While Docker on Windows is largely playing catch up with Docker on Linux,
-it's moving fast; and this is one thing that you *cannot* do on Linux!
-
-- LCOW came with the [2017 Fall Creators Update](https://blog.docker.com/2018/02/docker-for-windows-18-02-with-windows-10-fall-creators-update/).
-
-- It can run Linux and Windows containers side-by-side on Win 10.
-
-- It is no longer necessary to switch the Engine to "Linux Containers".
-
-  (In fact, if you want to run both Linux and Windows containers at the same time,
-   make sure that your Engine is set to "Windows Containers" mode!)
-
---
-
-If you are a Docker for Windows user, start your engine and try this:
-
-```bash
-docker pull microsoft/nanoserver:1803
-```
-
-(Make sure to switch to "Windows Containers mode" if necessary.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Run Both Windows and Linux containers
-
-- Run a Windows Nano Server (minimal CLI-only server)
-
-  ```bash
-  docker run --rm -it microsoft/nanoserver:1803 powershell
-  Get-Process
-  exit
-  ```
-
-- Run busybox on Linux in LCOW
-
-  ```bash
-  docker run --rm --platform linux busybox echo hello
-  ```
-
-(Although you will not be able to see them, this will create hidden
-Nano and LinuxKit VMs in Hyper-V!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Did We Say Things Move Fast
-
-- Things keep improving.
-
-- Now `--platform` defaults to `windows`, some images support both:
-
-  - golang, mongo, python, redis, hello-world ... and more being added
-
-  - you should still use `--platform` with multi-os images to be certain
-
-- Windows Containers now support `localhost` accessible containers (July 2018)
-
-- Microsoft (April 2018) added Hyper-V support to Windows 10 Home ...
-
-  ... so stay tuned for Docker support, maybe?!?
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Other Windows container options
-
-Most "official" Docker images don't run on Windows yet.
-
-Places to Look:
-
-  - Hub Official: https://hub.docker.com/u/winamd64/
-
-  - Microsoft: https://hub.docker.com/r/microsoft/
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## SQL Server? Choice of Linux or Windows
-
-- Microsoft [SQL Server for Linux 2017](https://hub.docker.com/r/microsoft/mssql-server-linux/) (amd64/linux)
-
-- Microsoft [SQL Server Express 2017](https://hub.docker.com/r/microsoft/mssql-server-windows-express/) (amd64/windows)
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-## Windows Tools and Tips
-
-- PowerShell [Tab Completion: DockerCompletion](https://github.com/matt9ucci/DockerCompletion)
-
-- Best Shell GUI: [Cmder.net](https://cmder.net/)
-
-- Good Windows Container Blogs and How-To's
-
-  - Docker DevRel [Elton Stoneman, Microsoft MVP](https://blog.sixeyed.com/)
-
-  - Docker Captain [Nicholas Dille](https://dille.name/blog/)
-
-  - Docker Captain [Stefan Scherer](https://stefanscherer.github.io/) 
-
-.debug[[containers/Windows_Containers.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Windows_Containers.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/two-containers-on-a-truck.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-working-with-volumes
-class: title
-
- Working with volumes
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-windows-containers)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-6)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-compose-for-development-stacks)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Working with volumes
-
-![volume](images/title-working-with-volumes.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-At the end of this section, you will be able to:
-
-* Create containers holding volumes.
-
-* Share volumes across containers.
-
-* Share a host directory with one or many containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Working with volumes
-
-Docker volumes can be used to achieve many things, including:
-
-* Bypassing the copy-on-write system to obtain native disk I/O performance.
-
-* Bypassing copy-on-write to leave some files out of `docker commit`.
-
-* Sharing a directory between multiple containers.
-
-* Sharing a directory between the host and a container.
-
-* Sharing a *single file* between the host and a container.
-
-* Using remote storage and custom storage with *volume drivers*.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Volumes are special directories in a container
-
-Volumes can be declared in two different ways:
-
-* Within a `Dockerfile`, with a `VOLUME` instruction.
-
-```dockerfile
-VOLUME /uploads
-```
-
-* On the command-line, with the `-v` flag for `docker run`.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d -v /uploads myapp
-```
-
-In both cases, `/uploads` (inside the container) will be a volume.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Volumes bypass the copy-on-write system
-
-Volumes act as passthroughs to the host filesystem.
-
-* The I/O performance on a volume is exactly the same as I/O performance
-  on the Docker host.
-
-* When you `docker commit`, the content of volumes is not brought into
-  the resulting image.
-
-* If a `RUN` instruction in a `Dockerfile` changes the content of a
-  volume, those changes are not recorded neither.
-
-* If a container is started with the `--read-only` flag, the volume
-  will still be writable (unless the volume is a read-only volume).
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Volumes can be shared across containers
-
-You can start a container with *exactly the same volumes* as another one.
-
-The new container will have the same volumes, in the same directories.
-
-They will contain exactly the same thing, and remain in sync.
-
-Under the hood, they are actually the same directories on the host anyway.
-
-This is done using the `--volumes-from` flag for `docker run`.
-
-We will see an example in the following slides.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Sharing app server logs with another container
-
-Let's start a Tomcat container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --name webapp -d -p 8080:8080 -v /usr/local/tomcat/logs tomcat
-```
-
-Now, start an `alpine` container accessing the same volume:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --volumes-from webapp alpine sh -c "tail -f /usr/local/tomcat/logs/*"
-```
-
-Then, from another window, send requests to our Tomcat container:
-```bash
-$ curl localhost:8080
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Volumes exist independently of containers
-
-If a container is stopped or removed, its volumes still exist and are available.
-
-Volumes can be listed and manipulated with `docker volume` subcommands:
-
-```bash
-$ docker volume ls
-DRIVER              VOLUME NAME
-local               5b0b65e4316da67c2d471086640e6005ca2264f3...
-local               pgdata-prod
-local               pgdata-dev
-local               13b59c9936d78d109d094693446e174e5480d973...
-```
-
-Some of those volume names were explicit (pgdata-prod, pgdata-dev).
-
-The others (the hex IDs) were generated automatically by Docker.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Naming volumes
-
-* Volumes can be created without a container, then used in multiple containers.
-
-Let's create a couple of volumes directly.
-
-```bash
-$ docker volume create webapps
-webapps
-```
-
-```bash
-$ docker volume create logs
-logs
-```
-
-Volumes are not anchored to a specific path.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Populating volumes
-
-* When an empty volume is mounted on a non-empty directory, the directory is copied to the volume.
-
-* This makes it easy to "promote" a normal directory to a volume.
-
-* Non-empty volumes are always mounted as-is.
-
-Let's populate the webapps volume with the webapps.dist directory from the Tomcat image.
-
-````bash
-$ docker run -v webapps:/usr/local/tomcat/webapps.dist tomcat true
-```
-
-Note: running `true` will cause the container to exit successfully once the `webapps.dist` directory has been copied to the `webapps` volume, instead of starting tomcat.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Using our named volumes
-
-* Volumes are used with the `-v` option.
-
-* When a host path does not contain a `/`, it is considered a volume name.
-
-Let's start a web server using the two previous volumes.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d -p 1234:8080 \
-         -v logs:/usr/local/tomcat/logs \
-         -v webapps:/usr/local/tomcat/webapps \
-         tomcat
-```
-
-Check that it's running correctly:
-
-```bash
-$ curl localhost:1234
-... (Tomcat tells us how happy it is to be up and running) ...
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Using a volume in another container
-
-* We will make changes to the volume from another container.
-
-* In this example, we will run a text editor in the other container.
-
-  (But this could be an FTP server, a WebDAV server, a Git receiver...)
-
-Let's start another container using the `webapps` volume.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -v webapps:/webapps -w /webapps -ti alpine vi ROOT/index.jsp
-```
-
-Vandalize the page, save, exit.
-
-Then run `curl localhost:1234` again to see your changes.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Using custom "bind-mounts"
-
-In some cases, you want a specific directory on the host to be mapped
-inside the container:
-
-* You want to manage storage and snapshots yourself.
-
-    (With LVM, or a SAN, or ZFS, or anything else!)
-
-* You have a separate disk with better performance (SSD) or resiliency (EBS)
-  than the system disk, and you want to put important data on that disk.
-
-* You want to share your source directory between your host (where the
-  source gets edited) and the container (where it is compiled or executed).
-
-Wait, we already met the last use-case in our example development workflow!
-Nice.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d -v /path/on/the/host:/path/in/container image ...
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Migrating data with `--volumes-from`
-
-The `--volumes-from` option tells Docker to re-use all the volumes
-of an existing container.
-
-* Scenario: migrating from Redis 2.8 to Redis 3.0.
-
-* We have a container (`myredis`) running Redis 2.8.
-
-* Stop the `myredis` container.
-
-* Start a new container, using the Redis 3.0 image, and the `--volumes-from` option.
-
-* The new container will inherit the data of the old one.
-
-* Newer containers can use `--volumes-from` too.
-
-* Doesn't work across servers, so not usable in clusters (Swarm, Kubernetes).
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Data migration in practice
-
-Let's create a Redis container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d --name redis28 redis:2.8
-```
-
-Connect to the Redis container and set some data.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -ti --link redis28:redis busybox telnet redis 6379
-```
-
-Issue the following commands:
-
-```bash
-SET counter 42
-INFO server
-SAVE
-QUIT
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Upgrading Redis
-
-Stop the Redis container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker stop redis28
-```
-
-Start the new Redis container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d --name redis30 --volumes-from redis28 redis:3.0
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Testing the new Redis
-
-Connect to the Redis container and see our data.
-
-```bash
-docker run -ti --link redis30:redis busybox telnet redis 6379
-```
-
-Issue a few commands.
-
-```bash
-GET counter
-INFO server
-QUIT
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Volumes lifecycle
-
-* When you remove a container, its volumes are kept around.
-
-* You can list them with `docker volume ls`.
-
-* You can access them by creating a container with `docker run -v`.
-
-* You can remove them with `docker volume rm` or `docker system prune`.
-
-Ultimately, _you_ are the one responsible for logging,
-monitoring, and backup of your volumes.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Checking volumes defined by an image
-
-Wondering if an image has volumes? Just use `docker inspect`:
-
-```bash
-$ # docker inspect training/datavol
-[{
-  "config": {
-    . . .
-    "Volumes": {
-        "/var/webapp": {}
-    },
-    . . .
-}]
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Checking volumes used by a container
-
-To look which paths are actually volumes, and to what they are bound,
-use `docker inspect` (again):
-
-```bash
-$ docker inspect <yourContainerID>
-[{
-  "ID": "<yourContainerID>",
-. . .
-  "Volumes": {
-     "/var/webapp": "/var/lib/docker/vfs/dir/f4280c5b6207ed531efd4cc673ff620cef2a7980f747dbbcca001db61de04468"
-  },
-  "VolumesRW": {
-     "/var/webapp": true
-  },
-}]
-```
-
-* We can see that our volume is present on the file system of the Docker host.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Sharing a single file
-
-The same `-v` flag can be used to share a single file (instead of a directory).
-
-One of the most interesting examples is to share the Docker control socket.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock docker sh
-```
-
-From that container, you can now run `docker` commands communicating with
-the Docker Engine running on the host. Try `docker ps`!
-
-.warning[Since that container has access to the Docker socket, it
-has root-like access to the host.]
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Volume plugins
-
-You can install plugins to manage volumes backed by particular storage systems,
-or providing extra features. For instance:
-
-* [REX-Ray](https://rexray.io/) - create and manage volumes backed by an enterprise storage system (e.g.
-  SAN or NAS), or by cloud block stores (e.g. EBS, EFS).
-
-* [Portworx](https://portworx.com/) - provides distributed block store for containers.
-
-* [Gluster](https://www.gluster.org/) - open source software-defined distributed storage that can scale
-  to several petabytes. It provides interfaces for object, block and file storage.
-
-* and much more at the [Docker Store](https://store.docker.com/search?category=volume&q=&type=plugin)!
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Volumes vs. Mounts
-
-* Since Docker 17.06, a new options is available: `--mount`.
-
-* It offers a new, richer syntax to manipulate data in containers.
-
-* It makes an explicit difference between:
-
-  - volumes (identified with a unique name, managed by a storage plugin),
-
-  - bind mounts (identified with a host path, not managed).
-
-* The former `-v` / `--volume` option is still usable.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## `--mount` syntax
-
-Binding a host path to a container path:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run \
-  --mount type=bind,source=/path/on/host,target=/path/in/container alpine
-```
-
-Mounting a volume to a container path:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run \
-  --mount source=myvolume,target=/path/in/container alpine
-```
-
-Mounting a tmpfs (in-memory, for temporary files):
-
-```bash
-$ docker run \
-  --mount type=tmpfs,destination=/path/in/container,tmpfs-size=1000000 alpine
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-## Section summary
-
-We've learned how to:
-
-* Create and manage volumes.
-
-* Share volumes across containers.
-
-* Share a host directory with one or many containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Working_With_Volumes.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Working_With_Volumes.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/wall-of-containers.jpeg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-compose-for-development-stacks
-class: title
-
- Compose for development stacks
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-working-with-volumes)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-6)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-exercise--writing-a-compose-file)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Compose for development stacks
-
-Dockerfile = great to build *one* container image.
-
-What if we have multiple containers?
-
-What if some of them require particular `docker run` parameters?
-
-How do we connect them all together?
-
-... Compose solves these use-cases (and a few more).
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Life before Compose
-
-Before we had Compose, we would typically write custom scripts to:
-
-- build container images,
-
-- run containers using these images,
-
-- connect the containers together,
-
-- rebuild, restart, update these images and containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Life with Compose
-
-Compose enables a simple, powerful onboarding workflow:
-
-1. Checkout our code.
-
-2. Run `docker-compose up`.
-
-3. Our app is up and running!
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-![composeup](images/composeup.gif)
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Life after Compose
-
-(Or: when do we need something else?)
-
-- Compose is *not* an orchestrator
-
-- It isn't designed to need to run containers on multiple nodes
-
-  (it can, however, work with Docker Swarm Mode)
-
-- Compose isn't ideal if we want to run containers on Kubernetes
-
-  - it uses different concepts (Compose services ≠ Kubernetes services)
-
-  - it needs a Docker Engine (although containerd support might be coming)
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## First rodeo with Compose
-
-1. Write Dockerfiles
-
-2. Describe our stack of containers in a YAML file called `docker-compose.yml`
-
-3. `docker-compose up` (or `docker-compose up -d` to run in the background)
-
-4. Compose pulls and builds the required images, and starts the containers
-
-5. Compose shows the combined logs of all the containers
-
-   (if running in the background, use `docker-compose logs`)
-
-6. Hit Ctrl-C to stop the whole stack
-
-   (if running in the background, use `docker-compose stop`)
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Iterating
-
-After making changes to our source code, we can:
-
-1. `docker-compose build` to rebuild container images
-
-2. `docker-compose up` to restart the stack with the new images
-
-We can also combine both with `docker-compose up --build`
-
-Compose will be smart, and only recreate the containers that have changed.
-
-When working with interpreted languages:
-
-- don't rebuild each time
-
-- leverage a `volumes` section instead
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Launching Our First Stack with Compose
-
-First step: clone the source code for the app we will be working on.
-
-```bash
-git clone https://github.com/jpetazzo/trainingwheels
-cd trainingwheels
-```
-
-Second step: start the app.
-
-```bash
-docker-compose up
-```
-
-Watch Compose build and run the app.
-
-That Compose stack exposes a web server on port 8000; try connecting to it.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Launching Our First Stack with Compose
-
-We should see a web page like this:
-
-![composeapp](images/composeapp.png)
-
-Each time we reload, the counter should increase.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Stopping the app
-
-When we hit Ctrl-C, Compose tries to gracefully terminate all of the containers.
-
-After ten seconds (or if we press `^C` again) it will forcibly kill them.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## The `docker-compose.yml` file
-
-Here is the file used in the demo:
-
-.small[
-```yaml
-version: "3"
-
-services:
-  www:
-    build: www
-    ports:
-      - ${PORT-8000}:5000
-    user: nobody
-    environment:
-      DEBUG: 1
-    command: python counter.py
-    volumes:
-      - ./www:/src
-
-  redis:
-    image: redis
-```
-]
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Compose file structure
-
-A Compose file has multiple sections:
-
-* `version` is mandatory. (Typically use "3".)
-
-* `services` is mandatory. Each service corresponds to a container.
-
-* `networks` is optional and indicates to which networks containers should be connected.
-  <br/>(By default, containers will be connected on a private, per-compose-file network.)
-
-* `volumes` is optional and can define volumes to be used and/or shared by the containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Compose file versions
-
-* Version 1 is legacy and shouldn't be used.
-
-  (If you see a Compose file without `version` and `services`, it's a legacy v1 file.)
-
-* Version 2 added support for networks and volumes.
-
-* Version 3 added support for deployment options (scaling, rolling updates, etc).
-
-* Typically use `version: "3"`.
-
-The [Docker documentation](https://docs.docker.com/compose/compose-file/)
-has excellent information about the Compose file format if you need to know more about versions.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Containers in `docker-compose.yml`
-
-Each service in the YAML file must contain either `build`, or `image`.
-
-* `build` indicates a path containing a Dockerfile.
-
-* `image` indicates an image name (local, or on a registry).
-
-* If both are specified, an image will be built from the `build` directory and named `image`.
-
-The other parameters are optional.
-
-They encode the parameters that you would typically add to `docker run`.
-
-Sometimes they have several minor improvements.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Container parameters
-
-* `command` indicates what to run (like `CMD` in a Dockerfile).
-
-* `ports` translates to one (or multiple) `-p` options to map ports.
-  <br/>You can specify local ports (i.e. `x:y` to expose public port `x`).
-
-* `volumes` translates to one (or multiple) `-v` options.
-  <br/>You can use relative paths here.
-
-For the full list, check: https://docs.docker.com/compose/compose-file/
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Environment variables
-
-- We can use environment variables in Compose files
-
-  (like `$THIS` or `${THAT}`)
-
-- We can provide default values, e.g. `${PORT-8000}`
-
-- Compose will also automatically load the environment file `.env`
-
-  (it should contain `VAR=value`, one per line)
-
-- This is a great way to customize build and run parameters
-
-  (base image versions to use, build and run secrets, port numbers...)
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Configuring a Compose stack
-
-- Follow [12-factor app configuration principles][12factorconfig]
-
-  (configure the app through environment variables)
-
-- Provide (in the repo) a default environment file suitable for development
-
-  (no secret or sensitive value)
-
-- Copy the default environment file to `.env` and tweak it
-
-  (or: provide a script to generate `.env` from a template)
-
-[12factorconfig]: https://12factor.net/config
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Running multiple copies of a stack
-
-- Copy the stack in two different directories, e.g. `front` and `frontcopy`
-
-- Compose prefixes images and containers with the directory name:
-
-  `front_www`, `front_www_1`, `front_db_1`
-
-  `frontcopy_www`, `frontcopy_www_1`, `frontcopy_db_1`
-
-- Alternatively, use `docker-compose -p frontcopy` 
-
-  (to set the `--project-name` of a stack, which default to the dir name)
-
-- Each copy is isolated from the others (runs on a different network)
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Checking stack status
-
-We have `ps`, `docker ps`, and similarly, `docker-compose ps`:
-
-```bash
-$ docker-compose ps
-Name                      Command             State           Ports          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-trainingwheels_redis_1   /entrypoint.sh red   Up      6379/tcp               
-trainingwheels_www_1     python counter.py    Up      0.0.0.0:8000->5000/tcp 
-```
-
-Shows the status of all the containers of our stack.
-
-Doesn't show the other containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Cleaning up (1)
-
-If you have started your application in the background with Compose and
-want to stop it easily, you can use the `kill` command:
-
-```bash
-$ docker-compose kill
-```
-
-Likewise, `docker-compose rm` will let you remove containers (after confirmation):
-
-```bash
-$ docker-compose rm
-Going to remove trainingwheels_redis_1, trainingwheels_www_1
-Are you sure? [yN] y
-Removing trainingwheels_redis_1...
-Removing trainingwheels_www_1...
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Cleaning up (2)
-
-Alternatively, `docker-compose down` will stop and remove containers.
-
-It will also remove other resources, like networks that were created for the application.
-
-```bash
-$ docker-compose down
-Stopping trainingwheels_www_1 ... done
-Stopping trainingwheels_redis_1 ... done
-Removing trainingwheels_www_1 ... done
-Removing trainingwheels_redis_1 ... done
-```
-
-Use `docker-compose down -v` to remove everything including volumes.
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Special handling of volumes
-
-- When an image gets updated, Compose automatically creates a new container
-
-- The data in the old container is lost...
-
-- ...Except if the container is using a *volume*
-
-- Compose will then re-attach that volume to the new container
-
-  (and data is then retained across database upgrades)
-
-- All good database images use volumes
-
-  (e.g. all official images)
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Gotchas with volumes
-
-- Unfortunately, Docker volumes don't have labels or metadata
-
-- Compose tracks volumes thanks to their associated container
-
-- If the container is deleted, the volume gets orphaned
-
-- Example: `docker-compose down && docker-compose up`
-
-  - the old volume still exists, detached from its container
-
-  - a new volume gets created
-
-- `docker-compose down -v`/`--volumes` deletes volumes
-
-  (but **not** `docker-compose down && docker-compose down -v`!)
- 
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Managing volumes explicitly
-
-Option 1: *named volumes*
-
-```yaml
-services:
-  app:
-    volumes:
-    - data:/some/path
-volumes:
-  data:
-```
-
-- Volume will be named `<project>_data`
-
-- It won't be orphaned with `docker-compose down`
-
-- It will correctly be removed with `docker-compose down -v`
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Managing volumes explicitly
-
-Option 2: *relative paths*
-
-```yaml
-services:
-  app:
-    volumes:
-    - ./data:/some/path
-```
-
-- Makes it easy to colocate the app and its data
-
-  (for migration, backups, disk usage accounting...)
-
-- Won't be removed by `docker-compose down -v`
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Managing complex stacks
-
-- Compose provides multiple features to manage complex stacks
-
-  (with many containers)
-
-- `-f`/`--file`/`$COMPOSE_FILE` can be a list of Compose files
-
-  (separated by `:` and merged together)
-
-- Services can be assigned to one or more *profiles*
-
-- `--profile`/`$COMPOSE_PROFILE` can be a list of comma-separated profiles
-
-  (see [Using service profiles][profiles] in the Compose documentation)
-
-- These variables can be set in `.env`
-
-[profiles]: https://docs.docker.com/compose/profiles/
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-## Dependencies
-
-- A service can have a `depends_on` section
-
-  (listing one or more other services)
-
-- This is used when bringing up individual services
-
-  (e.g. `docker-compose up blah` or `docker-compose run foo`)
-
-⚠️ It doesn't make a service "wait" for another one to be up!
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## A bit of history and trivia
-
-- Compose was initially named "Fig"
-
-- Compose is one of the only components of Docker written in Python
-
-  (almost everything else is in Go)
-
-- In 2020, Docker introduced "Compose CLI":
-
-  - `docker compose` command to deploy Compose stacks to some clouds
-
-  - progressively getting feature parity with `docker-compose`
-
-  - also provides numerous improvements (e.g. leverages BuildKit by default)
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Using compose to describe an environment
-:EN:- Connecting services together with a *Compose file*
-
-:FR:- Utiliser Compose pour décrire son environnement
-:FR:- Écrire un *Compose file* pour connecter les services entre eux
-
-.debug[[containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Compose_For_Dev_Stacks.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/catene-de-conteneurs.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-exercise--writing-a-compose-file
-class: title
-
- Exercise — writing a Compose file
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-compose-for-development-stacks)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-6)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-managing-hosts-with-docker-machine)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Exercise — writing a Compose file
-
-Let's write a Compose file for the wordsmith app!
-
-The code is at: https://github.com/jpetazzo/wordsmith
-
-.debug[[containers/Exercise_Composefile.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Exercise_Composefile.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/Container-Ship-Freighter-Navigation-Elbe-Romance-1782991.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-managing-hosts-with-docker-machine
-class: title
-
- Managing hosts with Docker Machine
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-exercise--writing-a-compose-file)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-6)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-advanced-dockerfile-syntax)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Managing hosts with Docker Machine
-
-- Docker Machine is a tool to provision and manage Docker hosts.
-
-- It automates the creation of a virtual machine:
-
-  - locally, with a tool like VirtualBox or VMware;
-
-  - on a public cloud like AWS EC2, Azure, Digital Ocean, GCP, etc.;
-
-  - on a private cloud like OpenStack.
-
-- It can also configure existing machines through an SSH connection.
-
-- It can manage as many hosts as you want, with as many "drivers" as you want.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Machine.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Machine.md)]
----
-
-## Docker Machine workflow
-
-1) Prepare the environment: setup VirtualBox, obtain cloud credentials ...
-
-2) Create hosts with `docker-machine create -d drivername machinename`.
-
-3) Use a specific machine with `eval $(docker-machine env machinename)`.
-
-4) Profit!
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Machine.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Machine.md)]
----
-
-## Environment variables
-
-- Most of the tools (CLI, libraries...) connecting to the Docker API can use environment variables.
-
-- These variables are:
-
-  - `DOCKER_HOST` (indicates address+port to connect to, or path of UNIX socket)
-
-  - `DOCKER_TLS_VERIFY` (indicates that TLS mutual auth should be used)
-
-  - `DOCKER_CERT_PATH` (path to the keypair and certificate to use for auth)
-
-- `docker-machine env ...` will generate the variables needed to connect to a host.
-
-- `$(eval docker-machine env ...)` sets these variables in the current shell.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Machine.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Machine.md)]
----
-
-## Host management features
-
-With `docker-machine`, we can:
-
-- upgrade a host to the latest version of the Docker Engine,
-
-- start/stop/restart hosts,
-
-- get a shell on a remote machine (with SSH),
-
-- copy files to/from remotes machines (with SCP),
-
-- mount a remote host's directory on the local machine (with SSHFS),
-
-- ...
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Machine.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Machine.md)]
----
-
-## The `generic` driver
-
-When provisioning a new host, `docker-machine` executes these steps:
-
-1) Create the host using a cloud or hypervisor API.
-
-2) Connect to the host over SSH.
-
-3) Install and configure Docker on the host.
-
-With the `generic` driver, we provide the IP address of an existing host
-(instead of e.g. cloud credentials) and we omit the first step.
-
-This allows to provision physical machines, or VMs provided by a 3rd
-party, or use a cloud for which we don't have a provisioning API.
-
-.debug[[containers/Docker_Machine.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Docker_Machine.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/ShippingContainerSFBay.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-advanced-dockerfile-syntax
-class: title
-
- Advanced Dockerfile Syntax
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-managing-hosts-with-docker-machine)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-7)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-buildkit)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-class: title
-
-# Advanced Dockerfile Syntax
-
-![construction](images/title-advanced-dockerfiles.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Objectives
-
-We have seen simple Dockerfiles to illustrate how Docker build
-container images.
-
-In this section, we will give a recap of the Dockerfile syntax,
-and introduce advanced Dockerfile commands that we might
-come across sometimes; or that we might want to use in some
-specific scenarios.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## `Dockerfile` usage summary
-
-* `Dockerfile` instructions are executed in order.
-
-* Each instruction creates a new layer in the image.
-
-* Docker maintains a cache with the layers of previous builds.
-
-* When there are no changes in the instructions and files making a layer,
-  the builder re-uses the cached layer, without executing the instruction for that layer.
-
-* The `FROM` instruction MUST be the first non-comment instruction.
-
-* Lines starting with `#` are treated as comments.
-
-* Some instructions (like `CMD` or `ENTRYPOINT`) update a piece of metadata.
-
-  (As a result, each call to these instructions makes the previous one useless.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `RUN` instruction
-
-The `RUN` instruction can be specified in two ways.
-
-With shell wrapping, which runs the specified command inside a shell,
-with `/bin/sh -c`:
-
-```dockerfile
-RUN apt-get update
-```
-
-Or using the `exec` method, which avoids shell string expansion, and
-allows execution in images that don't have `/bin/sh`:
-
-```dockerfile
-RUN [ "apt-get", "update" ]
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## More about the `RUN` instruction
-
-`RUN` will do the following:
-
-* Execute a command.
-* Record changes made to the filesystem.
-* Work great to install libraries, packages, and various files.
-
-`RUN` will NOT do the following:
-
-* Record state of *processes*.
-* Automatically start daemons.
-
-If you want to start something automatically when the container runs,
-you should use `CMD` and/or `ENTRYPOINT`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Collapsing layers
-
-It is possible to execute multiple commands in a single step:
-
-```dockerfile
-RUN apt-get update && apt-get install -y wget && apt-get clean
-```
-
-It is also possible to break a command onto multiple lines:
-
-```dockerfile
-RUN apt-get update \
- && apt-get install -y wget \
- && apt-get clean
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `EXPOSE` instruction
-
-The `EXPOSE` instruction tells Docker what ports are to be published
-in this image.
-
-```dockerfile
-EXPOSE 8080
-EXPOSE 80 443
-EXPOSE 53/tcp 53/udp
-```
-
-* All ports are private by default.
-
-* Declaring a port with `EXPOSE` is not enough to make it public.
-
-* The `Dockerfile` doesn't control on which port a service gets exposed.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Exposing ports
-
-* When you `docker run -p <port> ...`, that port becomes public.
-
-    (Even if it was not declared with `EXPOSE`.)
-
-* When you `docker run -P ...` (without port number), all ports
-  declared with `EXPOSE` become public.
-
-A *public port* is reachable from other containers and from outside the host.
-
-A *private port* is not reachable from outside.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `COPY` instruction
-
-The `COPY` instruction adds files and content from your host into the
-image.
-
-```dockerfile
-COPY . /src
-```
-
-This will add the contents of the *build context* (the directory
-passed as an argument to `docker build`) to the directory `/src`
-in the container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Build context isolation
-
-Note: you can only reference files and directories *inside* the
-build context. Absolute paths are taken as being anchored to
-the build context, so the two following lines are equivalent:
-
-```dockerfile
-COPY . /src
-COPY / /src
-```
-
-Attempts to use `..` to get out of the build context will be
-detected and blocked with Docker, and the build will fail.
-
-Otherwise, a `Dockerfile` could succeed on host A, but fail on host B.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## `ADD`
-
-`ADD` works almost like `COPY`, but has a few extra features.
-
-`ADD` can get remote files:
-
-```dockerfile
-ADD http://www.example.com/webapp.jar /opt/
-```
-
-This would download the `webapp.jar` file and place it in the `/opt`
-directory.
-
-`ADD` will automatically unpack zip files and tar archives:
-
-```dockerfile
-ADD ./assets.zip /var/www/htdocs/assets/
-```
-
-This would unpack `assets.zip` into `/var/www/htdocs/assets`.
-
-*However,* `ADD` will not automatically unpack remote archives.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## `ADD`, `COPY`, and the build cache
-
-* Before creating a new layer, Docker checks its build cache.
-
-* For most Dockerfile instructions, Docker only looks at the
-  `Dockerfile` content to do the cache lookup.
-
-* For `ADD` and `COPY` instructions, Docker also checks if the files
-  to be added to the container have been changed.
-
-* `ADD` always needs to download the remote file before
-  it can check if it has been changed.
-
-  (It cannot use,
-  e.g., ETags or If-Modified-Since headers.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## `VOLUME`
-
-The `VOLUME` instruction tells Docker that a specific directory
-should be a *volume*.
-
-```dockerfile
-VOLUME /var/lib/mysql
-```
-
-Filesystem access in volumes bypasses the copy-on-write layer,
-offering native performance to I/O done in those directories.
-
-Volumes can be attached to multiple containers, allowing to
-"port" data over from a container to another, e.g. to
-upgrade a database to a newer version.
-
-It is possible to start a container in "read-only" mode.
-The container filesystem will be made read-only, but volumes
-can still have read/write access if necessary.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `WORKDIR` instruction
-
-The `WORKDIR` instruction sets the working directory for subsequent
-instructions.
-
-It also affects `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT`, since it sets the working
-directory used when starting the container.
-   
-```dockerfile
-WORKDIR /src
-```
-
-You can specify `WORKDIR` again to change the working directory for
-further operations.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `ENV` instruction
-
-The `ENV` instruction specifies environment variables that should be
-set in any container launched from the image.
-
-```dockerfile
-ENV WEBAPP_PORT 8080
-```
-
-This will result in an environment variable being created in any
-containers created from this image of
-
-```bash
-WEBAPP_PORT=8080
-```
-
-You can also specify environment variables when you use `docker run`.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -e WEBAPP_PORT=8000 -e WEBAPP_HOST=www.example.com ...
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `USER` instruction
-
-The `USER` instruction sets the user name or UID to use when running
-the image.
-
-It can be used multiple times to change back to root or to another user.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `CMD` instruction
-
-The `CMD` instruction is a default command run when a container is
-launched from the image.
-
-```dockerfile
-CMD [ "nginx", "-g", "daemon off;" ]
-```
-
-Means we don't need to specify `nginx -g "daemon off;"` when running the
-container.
-
-Instead of:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run <dockerhubUsername>/web_image nginx -g "daemon off;"
-```
-
-We can just do:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run <dockerhubUsername>/web_image
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## More about the `CMD` instruction
-
-Just like `RUN`, the `CMD` instruction comes in two forms.
-The first executes in a shell:
-
-```dockerfile
-CMD nginx -g "daemon off;"
-```
-
-The second executes directly, without shell processing:
-
-```dockerfile
-CMD [ "nginx", "-g", "daemon off;" ]
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Overriding the `CMD` instruction
-
-The `CMD` can be overridden when you run a container.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it <dockerhubUsername>/web_image bash
-```
-
-Will run `bash` instead of `nginx -g "daemon off;"`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## The `ENTRYPOINT` instruction
-
-The `ENTRYPOINT` instruction is like the `CMD` instruction,
-but arguments given on the command line are *appended* to the
-entry point.
-
-Note: you have to use the "exec" syntax (`[ "..." ]`).
-
-```dockerfile
-ENTRYPOINT [ "/bin/ls" ]
-```
-
-If we were to run:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run training/ls -l
-```
-
-Instead of trying to run `-l`, the container will run `/bin/ls -l`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Overriding the `ENTRYPOINT` instruction
-
-The entry point can be overridden as well.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -it training/ls
-bin   dev  home  lib64  mnt  proc  run   srv  tmp  var
-boot  etc  lib   media  opt  root  sbin  sys  usr
-$ docker run -it --entrypoint bash training/ls
-root@d902fb7b1fc7:/#
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## How `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT` interact
-
-The `CMD` and `ENTRYPOINT` instructions work best when used
-together.
-
-```dockerfile
-ENTRYPOINT [ "nginx" ]
-CMD [ "-g", "daemon off;" ]
-```
-
-The `ENTRYPOINT` specifies the command to be run and the `CMD`
-specifies its options. On the command line we can then potentially
-override the options when needed.
-
-```bash
-$ docker run -d <dockerhubUsername>/web_image -t
-```
-
-This will override the options `CMD` provided with new flags.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-## Advanced Dockerfile instructions
-
-* `ONBUILD` lets you stash instructions that will be executed
-  when this image is used as a base for another one.
-* `LABEL` adds arbitrary metadata to the image.
-* `ARG` defines build-time variables (optional or mandatory).
-* `STOPSIGNAL` sets the signal for `docker stop` (`TERM` by default).
-* `HEALTHCHECK` defines a command assessing the status of the container.
-* `SHELL` sets the default program to use for string-syntax RUN, CMD, etc.
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## The `ONBUILD` instruction
-
-The `ONBUILD` instruction is a trigger. It sets instructions that will
-be executed when another image is built from the image being build.
-
-This is useful for building images which will be used as a base
-to build other images.
-
-```dockerfile
-ONBUILD COPY . /src
-```
-
-* You can't chain `ONBUILD` instructions with `ONBUILD`.
-* `ONBUILD` can't be used to trigger `FROM` instructions.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Advanced Dockerfile syntax
-:FR:- Dockerfile niveau expert
-
-.debug[[containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Advanced_Dockerfiles.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/aerial-view-of-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-buildkit
-class: title
-
- Buildkit
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-advanced-dockerfile-syntax)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-7)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-init-systems-and-pid-)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Buildkit
-
-- "New" backend for Docker builds
-
-  - announced in 2017
-
-  - ships with Docker Engine 18.09
-
-  - enabled by default on Docker Desktop in 2021
-
-- Huge improvements in build efficiency
-
-- 100% compatible with existing Dockerfiles
-
-- New features for multi-arch
-
-- Not just for building container images
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Old vs New
-
-- Classic `docker build`:
-
-  - copy whole build context
-  - linear execution
-  - `docker run` + `docker commit` + `docker run` + `docker commit`...
-
-- Buildkit:
-
-  - copy files only when they are needed; cache them
-  - compute dependency graph (dependencies are expressed by `COPY`)
-  - parallel execution
-  - doesn't rely on Docker, but on internal runner/snapshotter
-  - can run in "normal" containers (including in Kubernetes pods)
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Parallel execution
-
-- In multi-stage builds, all stages can be built in parallel
-
-  (example: https://github.com/jpetazzo/shpod; [before] and [after])
-
-- Stages are built only when they are necessary
-
-  (i.e. if their output is tagged or used in another necessary stage)
-
-- Files are copied from context only when needed
-
-- Files are cached in the builder
-
-[before]: https://github.com/jpetazzo/shpod/blob/c6efedad6d6c3dc3120dbc0ae0a6915f85862474/Dockerfile
-[after]: https://github.com/jpetazzo/shpod/blob/d20887bbd56b5fcae2d5d9b0ce06cae8887caabf/Dockerfile
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Turning it on and off
-
-- On recent version of Docker Desktop (since 2021):
-
-  *enabled by default*
-
-- On older versions, or on Docker CE (Linux):
-
-  `export DOCKER_BUILDKIT=1`
-
-- Turning it off:
-
-  `export DOCKER_BUILDKIT=0`
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Multi-arch support
-
-- Historically, Docker only ran on x86_64 / amd64
-
-  (Intel/AMD 64 bits architecture)
-
-- Folks have been running it on 32-bit ARM for ages
-
-  (e.g. Raspberry Pi)
-
-- This required a Go compiler and appropriate base images
-
-  (which means changing/adapting Dockerfiles to use these base images)
-
-- Docker [image manifest v2 schema 2][manifest] introduces multi-arch images
-
-  (`FROM alpine` automatically gets the right image for your architecture)
-
-[manifest]: https://docs.docker.com/registry/spec/manifest-v2-2/
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Why?
-
-- Raspberry Pi (32-bit and 64-bit ARM)
-
-- Other ARM-based embedded systems (ODROID, NVIDIA Jetson...)
-
-- Apple M1
-
-- AWS Graviton
-
-- Ampere Altra (e.g. on Oracle Cloud)
-
-- ...
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Multi-arch builds in a nutshell
-
-Use the `docker buildx build` command:
-
-```bash
-docker buildx build … \
-       --platform linux/amd64,linux/arm64,linux/arm/v7,linux/386 \
-       [--tag jpetazzo/hello --push]
-```
-
-- Requires all base images to be available for these platforms
-
-- Must not use binary downloads with hard-coded architectures!
-
-  (streamlining a Dockerfile for multi-arch: [before], [after])
-
-[before]: https://github.com/jpetazzo/shpod/blob/d20887bbd56b5fcae2d5d9b0ce06cae8887caabf/Dockerfile
-[after]: https://github.com/jpetazzo/shpod/blob/c50789e662417b34fea6f5e1d893721d66d265b7/Dockerfile
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Native vs emulated vs cross
-
-- Native builds:
-
-  *aarch64 machine running aarch64 programs building aarch64 images/binaries*
-
-- Emulated builds:
-
-  *x86_64 machine running aarch64 programs building aarch64 images/binaries*
-
-- Cross builds:
-
-  *x86_64 machine running x86_64 programs building aarch64 images/binaries*
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Native
-
-- Dockerfiles are (relatively) simple to write
-
-  (nothing special to do to handle multi-arch; just avoid hard-coded archs)
-
-- Best performance
-
-- Requires "exotic" machines
-
-- Requires setting up a build farm
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Emulated
-
-- Dockerfiles are (relatively) simple to write
-
-- Emulation performance can vary
-
-  (from "OK" to "ouch this is slow")
-
-- Emulation isn't always perfect
-
-  (weird bugs/crashes are rare but can happen)
-
-- Doesn't require special machines
-
-- Supports arbitrary architectures thanks to QEMU
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Cross
-
-- Dockerfiles are more complicated to write
-
-- Requires cross-compilation toolchains
-
-- Performance is good
-
-- Doesn't require special machines
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Native builds
-
-- Requires base images to be available
-
-- To view available architectures for an image:
-  ```bash
-  regctl manifest get --list <imagename>
-  docker manifest inspect <imagename>
-  ```
-
-- Nothing special to do, *except* when downloading binaries!
-
-  ```
-  https://releases.hashicorp.com/terraform/1.1.5/terraform_1.1.5_linux_`amd64`.zip
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Finding the right architecture
-
-`uname -m` → armv7l, aarch64, i686, x86_64
-
-`GOARCH` (from `go env`) → arm, arm64, 386, amd64
-
-In Dockerfile, add `ARG TARGETARCH` (or `ARG TARGETPLATFORM`)
-
-- `TARGETARCH` matches `GOARCH`
-
-- `TARGETPLAFORM` → linux/arm/v7, linux/arm64, linux/386, linux/amd64
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Welp
-
-Sometimes, binary releases be like:
-
-```
-Linux_arm64.tar.gz
-Linux_ppc64le.tar.gz
-Linux_s390x.tar.gz
-Linux_x86_64.tar.gz 
-```
-
-This needs a bit of custom mapping.
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Emulation
-
-- Leverages `binfmt_misc` and QEMU on Linux
-
-- Enabling:
-  ```bash
-  docker run --rm --privileged aptman/qus -s -- -p
-  ```
-
-- Disabling:
-  ```bash
-  docker run --rm --privileged aptman/qus -- -r
-  ```
-
-- Checking status:
-  ```bash
-  ls -l /proc/sys/fs/binfmt_misc
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## How it works
-
-- `binfmt_misc` lets us register _interpreters_ for binaries, e.g.:
-
-  - [DOSBox][dosbox] for DOS programs
-
-  - [Wine][wine] for Windows programs
-
-  - [QEMU][qemu] for Linux programs for other architectures
-
-- When we try to execute e.g. a SPARC binary on our x86_64 machine:
-
-  - `binfmt_misc` detects the binary format and invokes `qemu-<arch> the-binary ...`
-
-  - QEMU translates SPARC instructions to x86_64 instructions
-
-  - system calls go straight to the kernel
-
-[dosbox]: https://www.dosbox.com/
-[QEMU]: https://www.qemu.org/
-[wine]: https://www.winehq.org/
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## QEMU registration
-
-- The `aptman/qus` image mentioned earlier contains static QEMU builds
-
-- It registers all these interpreters with the kernel
-
-- For more details, check:
-
-  - https://github.com/dbhi/qus
-
-  - https://dbhi.github.io/qus/
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Cross-compilation
-
-- Cross-compilation is about 10x faster than emulation
-
-  (non-scientific benchmarks!)
-
-- In Dockerfile, add:
-
-  `ARG BUILDARCH BUILDPLATFORM TARGETARCH TARGETPLATFORM`
-
-- Can use `FROM --platform=$BUILDPLATFORM <image>`
-
-- Then use `$TARGETARCH` or `$TARGETPLATFORM`
-
-  (e.g. for Go, `export GOARCH=$TARGETARCH`)
-
-- Check [tonistiigi/xx][xx] and [Toni's blog][toni] for some amazing cross tools!
-
-[xx]: https://github.com/tonistiigi/xx
-[toni]: https://medium.com/@tonistiigi/faster-multi-platform-builds-dockerfile-cross-compilation-guide-part-1-ec087c719eaf
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## Checking runtime capabilities
-
-Build and run the following Dockerfile:
-
-```dockerfile
-FROM --platform=linux/amd64 busybox AS amd64
-FROM --platform=linux/arm64 busybox AS arm64
-FROM --platform=linux/arm/v7 busybox AS arm32
-FROM --platform=linux/386 busybox AS ia32
-FROM alpine
-RUN apk add file
-WORKDIR /root
-COPY --from=amd64 /bin/busybox /root/amd64/busybox
-COPY --from=arm64 /bin/busybox /root/arm64/busybox
-COPY --from=arm32 /bin/busybox /root/arm32/busybox
-COPY --from=ia32 /bin/busybox /root/ia32/busybox
-CMD for A in *; do echo "$A => $($A/busybox uname -a)"; done
-```
-
-It will indicate which executables can be run on your engine.
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-## More than builds
-
-- Buildkit is also used in other systems:
-
-  - [Earthly] - generic repeatable build pipelines
-
-  - [Dagger] - CICD pipelines that run anywhere
-
-  - and more!
-
-[Earthly]: https://earthly.dev/
-[Dagger]: https://dagger.io/
-
-.debug[[containers/Buildkit.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Buildkit.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/blue-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-init-systems-and-pid-
-class: title
-
- Init systems and PID 1
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-buildkit)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-7)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-application-configuration)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Init systems and PID 1
-
-In this chapter, we will consider:
-
-- the role of PID 1 in the world of Docker,
-
-- how to avoid some common pitfalls due to the misuse of init systems.
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-## What's an init system?
-
-- On UNIX, the "init system" (or "init" in short) is PID 1.
-
-- It is the first process started by the kernel when the system starts.
-
-- It has multiple responsibilities:
-
-  - start every other process on the machine,
-
-  - reap orphaned zombie processes.
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Orphaned zombie processes ?!?
-
-- When a process exits (or "dies"), it becomes a "zombie".
-
-  (Zombie processes show up in `ps` or `top` with the status code `Z`.)
-
-- Its parent process must *reap* the zombie process.
-
-  (This is done by calling `waitpid()` to retrieve the process' exit status.)
-
-- When a process exits, if it has child processes, these processes are "orphaned."
-
-- They are then re-parented to PID 1, init.
-
-- Init therefore needs to take care of these orphaned processes when they exit.
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-## Don't use init systems in containers
-
-- It's often tempting to use an init system or a process manager.
-
-  (Examples: *systemd*, *supervisord*...)
-
-- Our containers are then called "system containers".
-
-  (By contrast with "application containers".)
-
-- "System containers" are similar to lightweight virtual machines.
-
-- They have multiple downsides:
-
-  - when starting multiple processes, their logs get mixed on stdout,
-
-  - if the application process dies, the container engine doesn't see it.
-
-- Overall, they make it harder to operate troubleshoot containerized apps.
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-## Exceptions and workarounds
-
-- Sometimes, it's convenient to run a real init system like *systemd*.
-
-  (Example: a CI system whose goal is precisely to test an init script or unit file.)
-
-- If we need to run multiple processes: can we use multiple containers?
-
-  (Example: [this Compose file](https://github.com/jpetazzo/container.training/blob/master/compose/simple-k8s-control-plane/docker-compose.yaml) runs multiple processes together.)
-
-- When deploying with Kubernetes:
-
-  - a container belong to a pod,
-
-  - a pod can have multiple containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-## What about these zombie processes?
-
-- Our application runs as PID 1 in the container.
-
-- Our application may or may not be designed to reap zombie processes.
-
-- If our application uses subprocesses and doesn't reap them ...
-
-  ... this can lead to PID exhaustion!
-
-  (Or, more realistically, to a confusing herd of zombie processes.)
-
-- How can we solve this?
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-## Tini to the rescue
-
-- Docker can automatically provide a minimal `init` process.
-
-- This is enabled with `docker run --init ...`
-
-- It uses a small init system ([tini](https://github.com/krallin/tini)) as PID 1:
-
-  - it reaps zombies,
-
-  - it forwards signals,
-
-  - it exits when the child exits.
-
-- It is totally transparent to our application.
-
-- We should use it if our application creates subprocess but doesn't reap them.
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## What about Kubernetes?
-
-- Kubernetes does not expose that `--init` option.
-
-- However, we can achieve the same result with [Process Namespace Sharing](https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/configure-pod-container/share-process-namespace/).
-
-- When Process Namespace Sharing is enabled, PID 1 will be `pause`.
-
-- That `pause` process takes care of reaping zombies.
-
-- Process Namespace Sharing is available since Kubernetes 1.16.
-
-- If you're using an older version of Kubernetes ...
-
-  ... you might have to add `tini` explicitly to your Docker image.
-
-.debug[[containers/Init_Systems.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Init_Systems.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/chinook-helicopter-container.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-application-configuration
-class: title
-
- Application Configuration
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-init-systems-and-pid-)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-7)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-logging)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Application Configuration
-
-There are many ways to provide configuration to containerized applications.
-
-There is no "best way" — it depends on factors like:
-
-* configuration size,
-
-* mandatory and optional parameters,
-
-* scope of configuration (per container, per app, per customer, per site, etc),
-
-* frequency of changes in the configuration.
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Command-line parameters
-
-```bash
-docker run jpetazzo/hamba 80 www1:80 www2:80
-```
-
-* Configuration is provided through command-line parameters.
-
-* In the above example, the `ENTRYPOINT` is a script that will:
-
-  - parse the parameters,
-
-  - generate a configuration file,
-
-  - start the actual service.
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Command-line parameters pros and cons
-
-* Appropriate for mandatory parameters (without which the service cannot start).
-
-* Convenient for "toolbelt" services instantiated many times.
-
-  (Because there is no extra step: just run it!)
-
-* Not great for dynamic configurations or bigger configurations.
-
-  (These things are still possible, but more cumbersome.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Environment variables
-
-```bash
-docker run -e ELASTICSEARCH_URL=http://es42:9201/ kibana
-```
-
-* Configuration is provided through environment variables.
-
-* The environment variable can be used straight by the program,
-  <br/>or by a script generating a configuration file.
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Environment variables pros and cons
-
-* Appropriate for optional parameters (since the image can provide default values).
-
-* Also convenient for services instantiated many times.
-
-  (It's as easy as command-line parameters.)
-
-* Great for services with lots of parameters, but you only want to specify a few.
-
-  (And use default values for everything else.)
-
-* Ability to introspect possible parameters and their default values.
-
-* Not great for dynamic configurations.
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Baked-in configuration
-
-```
-FROM prometheus
-COPY prometheus.conf /etc
-```
-
-* The configuration is added to the image.
-
-* The image may have a default configuration; the new configuration can:
-
-  - replace the default configuration,
-
-  - extend it (if the code can read multiple configuration files).
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Baked-in configuration pros and cons
-
-* Allows arbitrary customization and complex configuration files.
-
-* Requires writing a configuration file. (Obviously!)
-
-* Requires building an image to start the service.
-
-* Requires rebuilding the image to reconfigure the service.
-
-* Requires rebuilding the image to upgrade the service.
-
-* Configured images can be stored in registries.
-
-  (Which is great, but requires a registry.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Configuration volume
-
-```bash
-docker run -v appconfig:/etc/appconfig myapp
-```
-
-* The configuration is stored in a volume.
-
-* The volume is attached to the container.
-
-* The image may have a default configuration.
-
-  (But this results in a less "obvious" setup, that needs more documentation.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Configuration volume pros and cons
-
-* Allows arbitrary customization and complex configuration files.
-
-* Requires creating a volume for each different configuration.
-
-* Services with identical configurations can use the same volume.
-
-* Doesn't require building / rebuilding an image when upgrading / reconfiguring.
-
-* Configuration can be generated or edited through another container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Dynamic configuration volume
-
-* This is a powerful pattern for dynamic, complex configurations.
-
-* The configuration is stored in a volume.
-
-* The configuration is generated / updated by a special container.
-
-* The application container detects when the configuration is changed.
-
-  (And automatically reloads the configuration when necessary.)
-
-* The configuration can be shared between multiple services if needed.
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Dynamic configuration volume example
-
-In a first terminal, start a load balancer with an initial configuration:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --name loadbalancer jpetazzo/hamba \
-  80 goo.gl:80
-```
-
-In another terminal, reconfigure that load balancer:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --rm --volumes-from loadbalancer jpetazzo/hamba reconfigure \
-  80 google.com:80
-```
-
-The configuration could also be updated through e.g. a REST API.
-
-(The REST API being itself served from another container.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-## Keeping secrets
-
-.warning[Ideally, you should not put secrets (passwords, tokens...) in:]
-
-* command-line or environment variables (anyone with Docker API access can get them),
-
-* images, especially stored in a registry.
-
-Secrets management is better handled with an orchestrator (like Swarm or Kubernetes).
-
-Orchestrators will allow to pass secrets in a "one-way" manner.
-
-Managing secrets securely without an orchestrator can be contrived.
-
-E.g.:
-
-- read the secret on stdin when the service starts,
-
-- pass the secret using an API endpoint.
-
-.debug[[containers/Application_Configuration.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Application_Configuration.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/container-cranes.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-logging
-class: title
-
- Logging
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-application-configuration)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-7)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-limiting-resources)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Logging
-
-In this chapter, we will explain the different ways to send logs from containers.
-
-We will then show one particular method in action, using ELK and Docker's logging drivers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## There are many ways to send logs
-
-- The simplest method is to write on the standard output and error.
-
-- Applications can write their logs to local files.
-
-  (The files are usually periodically rotated and compressed.)
-
-- It is also very common (on UNIX systems) to use syslog.
-
-  (The logs are collected by syslogd or an equivalent like journald.)
-
-- In large applications with many components, it is common to use a logging service.
-
-  (The code uses a library to send messages to the logging service.)
-
-*All these methods are available with containers.*
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Writing on stdout/stderr
-
-- The standard output and error of containers is managed by the container engine.
-
-- This means that each line written by the container is received by the engine.
-
-- The engine can then do "whatever" with these log lines.
-
-- With Docker, the default configuration is to write the logs to local files.
-
-- The files can then be queried with e.g. `docker logs` (and the equivalent API request).
-
-- This can be customized, as we will see later.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Writing to local files
-
-- If we write to files, it is possible to access them but cumbersome.
-
-  (We have to use `docker exec` or `docker cp`.)
-
-- Furthermore, if the container is stopped, we cannot use `docker exec`.
-
-- If the container is deleted, the logs disappear.
-
-- What should we do for programs who can only log to local files?
-
---
-
-- There are multiple solutions.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Using a volume or bind mount
-
-- Instead of writing logs to a normal directory, we can place them on a volume.
-
-- The volume can be accessed by other containers.
-
-- We can run a program like `filebeat` in another container accessing the same volume.
-
-  (`filebeat` reads local log files continuously, like `tail -f`, and sends them
-  to a centralized system like ElasticSearch.)
-
-- We can also use a bind mount, e.g. `-v /var/log/containers/www:/var/log/tomcat`.
-
-- The container will write log files to a directory mapped to a host directory.
-
-- The log files will appear on the host and be consumable directly from the host.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Using logging services
-
-- We can use logging frameworks (like log4j or the Python `logging` package).
-
-- These frameworks require some code and/or configuration in our application code.
-
-- These mechanisms can be used identically inside or outside of containers.
-
-- Sometimes, we can leverage containerized networking to simplify their setup.
-
-- For instance, our code can send log messages to a server named `log`.
-
-- The name `log` will resolve to different addresses in development, production, etc.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Using syslog
-
-- What if our code (or the program we are running in containers) uses syslog?
-
-- One possibility is to run a syslog daemon in the container.
-
-- Then that daemon can be setup to write to local files or forward to the network.
-
-- Under the hood, syslog clients connect to a local UNIX socket, `/dev/log`.
-
-- We can expose a syslog socket to the container (by using a volume or bind-mount).
-
-- Then just create a symlink from `/dev/log` to the syslog socket.
-
-- Voilà!
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Using logging drivers
-
-- If we log to stdout and stderr, the container engine receives the log messages.
-
-- The Docker Engine has a modular logging system with many plugins, including:
-
-  - json-file (the default one)
-  - syslog
-  - journald
-  - gelf
-  - fluentd
-  - splunk
-  - etc.
-
-- Each plugin can process and forward the logs to another process or system.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## A word of warning about `json-file`
-
-- By default, log file size is unlimited.
-
-- This means that a very verbose container *will* use up all your disk space.
-
-  (Or a less verbose container, but running for a very long time.)
-
-- Log rotation can be enabled by setting a `max-size` option.
-
-- Older log files can be removed by setting a `max-file` option.
-
-- Just like other logging options, these can be set per container, or globally.
-
-Example:
-```bash
-$ docker run --log-opt max-size=10m --log-opt max-file=3 elasticsearch
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Demo: sending logs to ELK
-
-- We are going to deploy an ELK stack.
-
-- It will accept logs over a GELF socket.
-
-- We will run a few containers with the `gelf` logging driver.
-
-- We will then see our logs in Kibana, the web interface provided by ELK.
-
-*Important foreword: this is not an "official" or "recommended"
-setup; it is just an example. We used ELK in this demo because
-it's a popular setup and we keep being asked about it; but you
-will have equal success with Fluent or other logging stacks!*
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## What's in an ELK stack?
-
-- ELK is three components:
-
-  - ElasticSearch (to store and index log entries)
-
-  - Logstash (to receive log entries from various
-    sources, process them, and forward them to various
-    destinations)
-
-  - Kibana (to view/search log entries with a nice UI)
-
-- The only component that we will configure is Logstash
-
-- We will accept log entries using the GELF protocol
-
-- Log entries will be stored in ElasticSearch,
-  <br/>and displayed on Logstash's stdout for debugging
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Running ELK
-
-- We are going to use a Compose file describing the ELK stack.
-
-- The Compose file is in the container.training repository on GitHub.
-
-```bash
-$ git clone https://github.com/jpetazzo/container.training
-$ cd container.training
-$ cd elk
-$ docker-compose up
-```
-
-- Let's have a look at the Compose file while it's deploying.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Our basic ELK deployment
-
-- We are using images from the Docker Hub: `elasticsearch`, `logstash`, `kibana`.
-
-- We don't need to change the configuration of ElasticSearch.
-
-- We need to tell Kibana the address of ElasticSearch:
-
-  - it is set with the `ELASTICSEARCH_URL` environment variable,
-
-  - by default it is `localhost:9200`, we change it to `elasticsearch:9200`.
-
-- We need to configure Logstash:
-
-  - we pass the entire configuration file through command-line arguments,
-
-  - this is a hack so that we don't have to create an image just for the config.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Sending logs to ELK
-
-- The ELK stack accepts log messages through a GELF socket.
-
-- The GELF socket listens on UDP port 12201.
-
-- To send a message, we need to change the logging driver used by Docker.
-
-- This can be done globally (by reconfiguring the Engine) or on a per-container basis.
-
-- Let's override the logging driver for a single container:
-
-```bash
-$ docker run --log-driver=gelf --log-opt=gelf-address=udp://localhost:12201 \
-  alpine echo hello world
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Viewing the logs in ELK
-
-- Connect to the Kibana interface.
-
-- It is exposed on port 5601.
-
-- Browse http://X.X.X.X:5601.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## "Configuring" Kibana
-
-- Kibana should offer you to "Configure an index pattern":
-  <br/>in the "Time-field name" drop down, select "@timestamp", and hit the
-  "Create" button.
-
-- Then:
-
-  - click "Discover" (in the top-left corner),
-  - click "Last 15 minutes" (in the top-right corner),
-  - click "Last 1 hour" (in the list in the middle),
-  - click "Auto-refresh" (top-right corner),
-  - click "5 seconds" (top-left of the list).
-
-- You should see a series of green bars (with one new green bar every minute).
-
-- Our 'hello world' message should be visible there.
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-## Important afterword
-
-**This is not a "production-grade" setup.**
-
-It is just an educational example. Since we have only
-one node , we did set up a single
-ElasticSearch instance and a single Logstash instance.
-
-In a production setup, you need an ElasticSearch cluster
-(both for capacity and availability reasons). You also
-need multiple Logstash instances.
-
-And if you want to withstand
-bursts of logs, you need some kind of message queue:
-Redis if you're cheap, Kafka if you want to make sure
-that you don't drop messages on the floor. Good luck.
-
-If you want to learn more about the GELF driver,
-have a look at [this blog post](
-https://jpetazzo.github.io/2017/01/20/docker-logging-gelf/).
-
-.debug[[containers/Logging.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Logging.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/container-housing.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-limiting-resources
-class: title
-
- Limiting resources
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-logging)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-7)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-deep-dive-into-container-internals)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Limiting resources
-
-- So far, we have used containers as convenient units of deployment.
-
-- What happens when a container tries to use more resources than available?
-
-  (RAM, CPU, disk usage, disk and network I/O...)
-
-- What happens when multiple containers compete for the same resource?
-
-- Can we limit resources available to a container?
-
-  (Spoiler alert: yes!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Container processes are normal processes
-
-- Containers are closer to "fancy processes" than to "lightweight VMs".
-
-- A process running in a container is, in fact, a process running on the host.
-
-- Let's look at the output of `ps` on a container host running 3 containers :
-
-  ```
-       0  2662  0.2  0.3 /usr/bin/dockerd -H fd://
-       0  2766  0.1  0.1  \_ docker-containerd --config /var/run/docker/containe
-       0 23479  0.0  0.0      \_ docker-containerd-shim -namespace moby -workdir
-       0 23497  0.0  0.0      |   \_ `nginx`: master process nginx -g daemon off;
-     101 23543  0.0  0.0      |       \_ `nginx`: worker process
-       0 23565  0.0  0.0      \_ docker-containerd-shim -namespace moby -workdir
-     102 23584  9.4 11.3      |   \_ `/docker-java-home/jre/bin/java` -Xms2g -Xmx2
-       0 23707  0.0  0.0      \_ docker-containerd-shim -namespace moby -workdir
-       0 23725  0.0  0.0          \_ `/bin/sh`
-  ```
-
-- The highlighted processes are containerized processes.
-  <br/>
-  (That host is running nginx, elasticsearch, and alpine.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## By default: nothing changes
-
-- What happens when a process uses too much memory on a Linux system?
-
---
-
-- Simplified answer:
-
-  - swap is used (if available);
-
-  - if there is not enough swap space, eventually, the out-of-memory killer is invoked;
-
-  - the OOM killer uses heuristics to kill processes;
-
-  - sometimes, it kills an unrelated process.
-
---
-
-- What happens when a container uses too much memory?
-
-- The same thing!
-
-  (i.e., a process eventually gets killed, possibly in another container.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Limiting container resources
-
-- The Linux kernel offers rich mechanisms to limit container resources.
-
-- For memory usage, the mechanism is part of the *cgroup* subsystem.
-
-- This subsystem allows limiting the memory for a process or a group of processes.
-
-- A container engine leverages these mechanisms to limit memory for a container.
-
-- The out-of-memory killer has a new behavior:
-
-  - it runs when a container exceeds its allowed memory usage,
-
-  - in that case, it only kills processes in that container.
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Limiting memory in practice
-
-- The Docker Engine offers multiple flags to limit memory usage.
-
-- The two most useful ones are `--memory` and `--memory-swap`.
-
-- `--memory` limits the amount of physical RAM used by a container.
-
-- `--memory-swap` limits the total amount (RAM+swap) used by a container.
-
-- The memory limit can be expressed in bytes, or with a unit suffix.
-
-  (e.g.: `--memory 100m` = 100 megabytes.)
-
-- We will see two strategies: limiting RAM usage, or limiting both
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Limiting RAM usage
-
-Example:
-
-```bash
-docker run -ti --memory 100m python
-```
-
-If the container tries to use more than 100 MB of RAM, *and* swap is available:
-
-- the container will not be killed,
-
-- memory above 100 MB will be swapped out,
-
-- in most cases, the app in the container will be slowed down (a lot).
-
-If we run out of swap, the global OOM killer still intervenes.
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Limiting both RAM and swap usage
-
-Example:
-
-```bash
-docker run -ti --memory 100m --memory-swap 100m python
-```
-
-If the container tries to use more than 100 MB of memory, it is killed.
-
-On the other hand, the application will never be slowed down because of swap.
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## When to pick which strategy?
-
-- Stateful services (like databases) will lose or corrupt data when killed
-
-- Allow them to use swap space, but monitor swap usage
-
-- Stateless services can usually be killed with little impact
-
-- Limit their mem+swap usage, but monitor if they get killed
-
-- Ultimately, this is no different from "do I want swap, and how much?"
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Limiting CPU usage
-
-- There are no less than 3 ways to limit CPU usage:
-
-  - setting a relative priority with `--cpu-shares`,
-
-  - setting a CPU% limit with `--cpus`,
-
-  - pinning a container to specific CPUs with `--cpuset-cpus`.
-
-- They can be used separately or together.
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Setting relative priority
-
-- Each container has a relative priority used by the Linux scheduler.
-
-- By default, this priority is 1024.
-
-- As long as CPU usage is not maxed out, this has no effect.
-
-- When CPU usage is maxed out, each container receives CPU cycles in proportion of its relative priority.
-
-- In other words: a container with `--cpu-shares 2048` will receive twice as much than the default.
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Setting a CPU% limit
-
-- This setting will make sure that a container doesn't use more than a given % of CPU.
-
-- The value is expressed in CPUs; therefore:
-
-  `--cpus 0.1` means 10% of one CPU,
-
-  `--cpus 1.0` means 100% of one whole CPU,
-
-  `--cpus 10.0` means 10 entire CPUs.
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Pinning containers to CPUs
-
-- On multi-core machines, it is possible to restrict the execution on a set of CPUs.
-
-- Examples:
-
-  `--cpuset-cpus 0` forces the container to run on CPU 0;
-
-  `--cpuset-cpus 3,5,7` restricts the container to CPUs 3, 5, 7;
-
-  `--cpuset-cpus 0-3,8-11` restricts the container to CPUs 0, 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11.
-
-- This will not reserve the corresponding CPUs!
-
-  (They might still be used by other containers, or uncontainerized processes.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-## Limiting disk usage
-
-- Most storage drivers do not support limiting the disk usage of containers.
-
-  (With the exception of devicemapper, but the limit cannot be set easily.)
- 
-- This means that a single container could exhaust disk space for everyone.
-
-- In practice, however, this is not a concern, because:
-
-  - data files (for stateful services) should reside on volumes,
-
-  - assets (e.g. images, user-generated content...) should reside on object stores or on volume,
-
-  - logs are written on standard output and gathered by the container engine.
-
-- Container disk usage can be audited with `docker ps -s` and `docker diff`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Resource_Limits.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Resource_Limits.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/containers-by-the-water.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-deep-dive-into-container-internals
-class: title
-
- Deep dive into container internals
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-limiting-resources)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-8)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-control-groups)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Deep dive into container internals
-
-In this chapter, we will explain some of the fundamental building blocks of containers.
-
-This will give you a solid foundation so you can:
-
-- understand "what's going on" in complex situations,
-
-- anticipate the behavior of containers (performance, security...) in new scenarios,
-
-- implement your own container engine.
-
-The last item should be done for educational purposes only!
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## There is no container code in the Linux kernel
-
-- If we search "container" in the Linux kernel code, we find:
-
-  - generic code to manipulate data structures (like linked lists, etc.),
-
-  - unrelated concepts like "ACPI containers",
-
-  - *nothing* relevant to "our" containers!
-
-- Containers are composed using multiple independent features.
-
-- On Linux, containers rely on "namespaces, cgroups, and some filesystem magic."
-
-- Security also requires features like capabilities, seccomp, LSMs...
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/distillery-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-control-groups
-class: title
-
- Control groups
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-deep-dive-into-container-internals)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-8)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-namespaces)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-# Control groups
-
-- Control groups provide resource *metering* and *limiting*.
-
-- This covers a number of "usual suspects" like:
-
-  - memory
-
-  - CPU
-
-  - block I/O
-
-  - network (with cooperation from iptables/tc)
-
-- And a few exotic ones:
-
-  - huge pages (a special way to allocate memory)
-
-  - RDMA (resources specific to InfiniBand / remote memory transfer)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Crowd control
-
-- Control groups also allow to group processes for special operations:
-
-  - freezer (conceptually similar to a "mass-SIGSTOP/SIGCONT")
-
-  - perf_event (gather performance events on multiple processes)
-
-  - cpuset (limit or pin processes to specific CPUs)
-
-- There is a "pids" cgroup to limit the number of processes in a given group.
-
-- There is also a "devices" cgroup to control access to device nodes.
-
-  (i.e. everything in `/dev`.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Generalities
-
-- Cgroups form a hierarchy (a tree).
-
-- We can create nodes in that hierarchy.
-
-- We can associate limits to a node.
-
-- We can move a process (or multiple processes) to a node.
-
-- The process (or processes) will then respect these limits.
-
-- We can check the current usage of each node.
-
-- In other words: limits are optional (if we only want accounting).
-
-- When a process is created, it is placed in its parent's groups.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Example
-
-The numbers are PIDs.
-
-The names are the names of our nodes (arbitrarily chosen).
-
-.small[
-```bash
-cpu                      memory
-├── batch                ├── stateless
-│   ├── cryptoscam       │   ├── 25
-│   │   └── 52           │   ├── 26
-│   └── ffmpeg           │   ├── 27
-│       ├── 109          │   ├── 52
-│       └── 88           │   ├── 109
-└── realtime             │   └── 88
-    ├── nginx            └── databases
-    │   ├── 25               ├── 1008
-    │   ├── 26               └── 524
-    │   └── 27
-    ├── postgres
-    │   └── 524
-    └── redis
-        └── 1008
-```
-]
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Cgroups v1 vs v2
-
-- Cgroups v1 are available on all systems (and widely used).
-
-- Cgroups v2 are a huge refactor.
-
-  (Development started in Linux 3.10, released in 4.5.)
-
-- Cgroups v2 have a number of differences:
-
-  - single hierarchy (instead of one tree per controller),
-
-  - processes can only be on leaf nodes (not inner nodes),
-
-  - and of course many improvements / refactorings.
-
-- Cgroups v2 enabled by default on Fedora 31 (2019), Ubuntu 21.10...
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Memory cgroup: accounting
-
-- Keeps track of pages used by each group:
-
-  - file (read/write/mmap from block devices),
-  - anonymous (stack, heap, anonymous mmap),
-  - active (recently accessed),
-  - inactive (candidate for eviction).
-
-- Each page is "charged" to a group.
-
-- Pages can be shared across multiple groups.
-
-  (Example: multiple processes reading from the same files.)
-
-- To view all the counters kept by this cgroup:
-
-  ```bash
-  $ cat /sys/fs/cgroup/memory/memory.stat
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Memory cgroup v1: limits
-
-- Each group can have (optional) hard and soft limits.
-
-- Limits can be set for different kinds of memory:
-
-  - physical memory,
-
-  - kernel memory,
-
-  - total memory (including swap).
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Soft limits and hard limits
-
-- Soft limits are not enforced.
-
-  (But they influence reclaim under memory pressure.)
-
-- Hard limits *cannot* be exceeded:
-
-  - if a group of processes exceeds a hard limit,
-
-  - and if the kernel cannot reclaim any memory,
-
-  - then the OOM (out-of-memory) killer is triggered,
-
-  - and processes are killed until memory gets below the limit again.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Avoiding the OOM killer
-
-- For some workloads (databases and stateful systems), killing
-  processes because we run out of memory is not acceptable.
-
-- The "oom-notifier" mechanism helps with that.
-
-- When "oom-notifier" is enabled and a hard limit is exceeded:
-
-  - all processes in the cgroup are frozen,
-
-  - a notification is sent to user space (instead of killing processes),
-
-  - user space can then raise limits, migrate containers, etc.,
-
-  - once the memory usage is below the hard limit, unfreeze the cgroup.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Overhead of the memory cgroup
-
-- Each time a process grabs or releases a page, the kernel update counters.
-
-- This adds some overhead.
-
-- Unfortunately, this cannot be enabled/disabled per process.
-
-- It has to be done system-wide, at boot time.
-
-- Also, when multiple groups use the same page:
-
-  - only the first group gets "charged",
-
-  - but if it stops using it, the "charge" is moved to another group.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Setting up a limit with the memory cgroup
-
-Create a new memory cgroup:
-
-```bash
-$ CG=/sys/fs/cgroup/memory/onehundredmegs
-$ sudo mkdir $CG
-```
-
-Limit it to approximately 100MB of memory usage:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo tee $CG/memory.memsw.limit_in_bytes <<< 100000000
-```
-
-Move the current process to that cgroup:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo tee $CG/tasks <<< $$
-```
-
-The current process *and all its future children* are now limited.
-
-(Confused about `<<<`? Look at the next slide!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## What's `<<<`?
-
-- This is a "here string". (It is a non-POSIX shell extension.)
-
-- The following commands are equivalent:
-
-  ```bash
-  foo <<< hello
-  ```
-
-  ```bash
-  echo hello | foo
-  ```
-
-  ```bash
-  foo <<EOF
-  hello
-  EOF
-  ```
-
-- Why did we use that?
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Writing to cgroups pseudo-files requires root
-
-Instead of:
-
-```bash
-sudo tee $CG/tasks <<< $$
-```
-
-We could have done:
-
-```bash
-sudo sh -c "echo $$ > $CG/tasks"
-```
-
-The following commands, however, would be invalid:
-
-```bash
-sudo echo $$ > $CG/tasks
-```
-
-```bash
-sudo -i # (or su)
-echo $$ > $CG/tasks
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Testing the memory limit
-
-Start the Python interpreter:
-
-```bash
-$ python
-Python 3.6.4 (default, Jan  5 2018, 02:35:40)
-[GCC 7.2.1 20171224] on linux
-Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
->>>
-```
-
-Allocate 80 megabytes:
-
-```python
->>> s = "!" * 1000000 * 80
-```
-
-Add 20 megabytes more:
-
-```python
->>> t = "!" * 1000000 * 20
-Killed
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Memory cgroup v2: limits
-
-- `memory.min` = hard reservation (guaranteed memory for this cgroup)
-
-- `memory.low` = soft reservation ("*try* not to reclaim memory if we're below this")
-
-- `memory.high` = soft limit (aggressively reclaim memory; don't trigger OOMK)
-
-- `memory.max` = hard limit (triggers OOMK)
-
-- `memory.swap.high` = aggressively reclaim memory when using that much swap
-
-- `memory.swap.max` = prevent using more swap than this
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## CPU cgroup
-
-- Keeps track of CPU time used by a group of processes.
-
-  (This is easier and more accurate than `getrusage` and `/proc`.)
-
-- Keeps track of usage per CPU as well.
-
-  (i.e., "this group of process used X seconds of CPU0 and Y seconds of CPU1".)
-
-- Allows setting relative weights used by the scheduler.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Cpuset cgroup
-
-- Pin groups to specific CPU(s).
-
-- Use-case: reserve CPUs for specific apps.
-
-- Warning: make sure that "default" processes aren't using all CPUs!
-
-- CPU pinning can also avoid performance loss due to cache flushes.
-
-- This is also relevant for NUMA systems.
-
-- Provides extra dials and knobs.
-
-  (Per zone memory pressure, process migration costs...)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Blkio cgroup
-
-- Keeps track of I/Os for each group:
-
-  - per block device
-  - read vs write
-  - sync vs async
-
-- Set throttle (limits) for each group:
-
-  - per block device
-  - read vs write
-  - ops vs bytes
-
-- Set relative weights for each group.
-
-- Note: most writes go through the page cache.
-  <br/>(So classic writes will appear to be unthrottled at first.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Net_cls and net_prio cgroup
-
-- Only works for egress (outgoing) traffic.
-
-- Automatically set traffic class or priority
-  for traffic generated by processes in the group.
-
-- Net_cls will assign traffic to a class.
-
-- Classes have to be matched with tc or iptables, otherwise traffic just flows normally.
-
-- Net_prio will assign traffic to a priority.
-
-- Priorities are used by queuing disciplines.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Devices cgroup
-
-- Controls what the group can do on device nodes
-
-- Permissions include read/write/mknod
-
-- Typical use:
-
-  - allow `/dev/{tty,zero,random,null}` ...
-  - deny everything else
-
-- A few interesting nodes:
-
-  - `/dev/net/tun` (network interface manipulation)
-  - `/dev/fuse` (filesystems in user space)
-  - `/dev/kvm` (VMs in containers, yay inception!)
-  - `/dev/dri` (GPU)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/lots-of-containers.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-namespaces
-class: title
-
- Namespaces
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-control-groups)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-8)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-security-features)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-# Namespaces
-
-- Provide processes with their own view of the system.
-
-- Namespaces limit what you can see (and therefore, what you can use).
-
-- These namespaces are available in modern kernels:
-
-  - pid
-  - net
-  - mnt
-  - uts
-  - ipc
-  - user
-  - time
-  - cgroup
-
-  (We are going to detail them individually.)
-
-- Each process belongs to one namespace of each type.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Namespaces are always active
-
-- Namespaces exist even when you don't use containers.
-
-- This is a bit similar to the UID field in UNIX processes:
-
-  - all processes have the UID field, even if no user exists on the system
-
-  - the field always has a value / the value is always defined
-    <br/>
-    (i.e. any process running on the system has some UID)
-
-  - the value of the UID field is used when checking permissions
-    <br/>
-    (the UID field determines which resources the process can access)
-
-- You can replace "UID field" with "namespace" above and it still works!
-
-- In other words: even when you don't use containers,
-  <br/>there is one namespace of each type, containing all the processes on the system.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Manipulating namespaces
-
-- Namespaces are created with two methods:
-
-  - the `clone()` system call (used when creating new threads and processes),
-
-  - the `unshare()` system call.
-
-- The Linux tool `unshare` allows doing that from a shell.
-
-- A new process can re-use none / all / some of the namespaces of its parent.
-
-- It is possible to "enter" a namespace with the `setns()` system call.
-
-- The Linux tool `nsenter` allows doing that from a shell.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Namespaces lifecycle
-
-- When the last process of a namespace exits, the namespace is destroyed.
-
-- All the associated resources are then removed.
-
-- Namespaces are materialized by pseudo-files in `/proc/<pid>/ns`.
-
-  ```bash
-  ls -l /proc/self/ns
-  ```
-
-- It is possible to compare namespaces by checking these files.
-
-  (This helps to answer the question, "are these two processes in the same namespace?")
-
-- It is possible to preserve a namespace by bind-mounting its pseudo-file.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Namespaces can be used independently
-
-- As mentioned in the previous slides:
-
-  *A new process can re-use none / all / some of the namespaces of its parent.*
-
-- We are going to use that property in the examples in the next slides.
-
-- We are going to present each type of namespace.
-
-- For each type, we will provide an example using only that namespace.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## UTS namespace
-
-- gethostname / sethostname
-
-- Allows setting a custom hostname for a container.
-
-- That's (mostly) it!
-
-- Also allows setting the NIS domain.
-
-  (If you don't know what a NIS domain is, you don't have to worry about it!)
-
-- If you're wondering: UTS = UNIX time sharing.
-
-- This namespace was named like this because of the `struct utsname`,
-  <br/>
-  which is commonly used to obtain the machine's hostname, architecture, etc.
-
-  (The more you know!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Creating our first namespace
-
-Let's use `unshare` to create a new process that will have its own UTS namespace:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo unshare --uts
-```
-
-- We have to use `sudo` for most `unshare` operations.
-
-- We indicate that we want a new uts namespace, and nothing else.
-
-- If we don't specify a program to run, a `$SHELL` is started.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Demonstrating our uts namespace
-
-In our new "container", check the hostname, change it, and check it:
-
-```bash
- # hostname
- nodeX
- # hostname tupperware
- # hostname
- tupperware
-```
-
-In another shell, check that the machine's hostname hasn't changed:
-
-```bash
-$ hostname
-nodeX
-```
-
-Exit the "container" with `exit` or `Ctrl-D`.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Net namespace overview
-
-- Each network namespace has its own private network stack.
-
-- The network stack includes:
-
-  - network interfaces (including `lo`),
-
-  - routing table**s** (as in `ip rule` etc.),
-
-  - iptables chains and rules,
-
-  - sockets (as seen by `ss`, `netstat`).
-
-- You can move a network interface from a network namespace to another:
-  ```bash
-  ip link set dev eth0 netns PID
-  ```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Net namespace typical use
-
-- Each container is given its own network namespace.
-
-- For each network namespace (i.e. each container), a `veth` pair is created.
-
-  (Two `veth` interfaces act as if they were connected with a cross-over cable.)
-
-- One `veth` is moved to the container network namespace (and renamed `eth0`).
-
-- The other `veth` is moved to a bridge on the host (e.g. the `docker0` bridge).
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Creating a network namespace
-
-Start a new process with its own network namespace:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo unshare --net
-```
-
-See that this new network namespace is unconfigured:
-
-```bash
- # ping 1.1
- connect: Network is unreachable
- # ifconfig
- # ip link ls
- 1: lo: <LOOPBACK> mtu 65536 qdisc noop state DOWN mode DEFAULT group default qlen 1000
-     link/loopback 00:00:00:00:00:00 brd 00:00:00:00:00:00
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Creating the `veth` interfaces
-
-In another shell (on the host), create a `veth` pair:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo ip link add name in_host type veth peer name in_netns
-```
-
-Configure the host side (`in_host`):
-
-```bash
-$ sudo ip link set in_host master docker0 up
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Moving the `veth` interface
-
-*In the process created by `unshare`,* check the PID of our "network container":
-
-```bash
- # echo $$
- 533
-```
-
-*On the host*, move the other side (`in_netns`) to the network namespace:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo ip link set in_netns netns 533
-```
-
-(Make sure to update "533" with the actual PID obtained above!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Basic network configuration
-
-Let's set up `lo` (the loopback interface):
-
-```bash
- # ip link set lo up
-```
-
-Activate the `veth` interface and rename it to `eth0`:
-
-```bash
- # ip link set in_netns name eth0 up
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Allocating IP address and default route
-
-*On the host*, check the address of the Docker bridge:
-
-```bash
-$ ip addr ls dev docker0
-```
-
-(It could be something like `172.17.0.1`.)
-
-Pick an IP address in the middle of the same subnet, e.g. `172.17.0.99`.
-
-*In the process created by `unshare`,* configure the interface:
-
-```bash
- # ip addr add 172.17.0.99/24 dev eth0
- # ip route add default via 172.17.0.1
-```
-
-(Make sure to update the IP addresses if necessary.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Validating the setup
-
-Check that we now have connectivity:
-
-```bash
- # ping 1.1
-```
-
-Note: we were able to take a shortcut, because Docker is running,
-and provides us with a `docker0` bridge and a valid `iptables` setup.
-
-If Docker is not running, you will need to take care of this!
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## Cleaning up network namespaces
-
-- Terminate the process created by `unshare` (with `exit` or `Ctrl-D`).
-
-- Since this was the only process in the network namespace, it is destroyed.
-
-- All the interfaces in the network namespace are destroyed.
-
-- When a `veth` interface is destroyed, it also destroys the other half of the pair.
-
-- So we don't have anything else to do to clean up!
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Other ways to use network namespaces
-
-- `--net none` gives an empty network namespace to a container.
-
-  (Effectively isolating it completely from the network.)
-
-- `--net host` means "do not containerize the network".
-
-  (No network namespace is created; the container uses the host network stack.)
-
-- `--net container` means "reuse the network namespace of another container".
-
-  (As a result, both containers share the same interfaces, routes, etc.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Mnt namespace
-
-- Processes can have their own root fs (à la chroot).
-
-- Processes can also have "private" mounts. This allows:
-
-  - isolating `/tmp` (per user, per service...)
-
-  - masking `/proc`, `/sys` (for processes that don't need them)
-
-  - mounting remote filesystems or sensitive data,
-    <br/>but make it visible only for allowed processes
-
-- Mounts can be totally private, or shared.
-
-- At this point, there is no easy way to pass along a mount
-  from a namespace to another.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## Setting up a private `/tmp`
-
-Create a new mount namespace:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo unshare --mount
-```
-
-In that new namespace, mount a brand new `/tmp`:
-
-```bash
- # mount -t tmpfs none /tmp
-```
-
-Check the content of `/tmp` in the new namespace, and compare to the host.
-
-The mount is automatically cleaned up when you exit the process.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## PID namespace
-
-- Processes within a PID namespace only "see" processes
-  in the same PID namespace.
-
-- Each PID namespace has its own numbering (starting at 1).
-
-- When PID 1 goes away, the whole namespace is killed.
-
-  (When PID 1 goes away on a normal UNIX system, the kernel panics!)
-
-- Those namespaces can be nested.
-
-- A process ends up having multiple PIDs (one per namespace in which it is nested).
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## PID namespace in action
-
-Create a new PID namespace:
-
-```bash
-$ sudo unshare --pid --fork
-```
-
-(We need the `--fork` flag because the PID namespace is special.)
-
-Check the process tree in the new namespace:
-
-```bash
- # ps faux
-```
-
---
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-🤔 Why do we see all the processes?!?
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## PID namespaces and `/proc`
-
-- Tools like `ps` rely on the `/proc` pseudo-filesystem.
-
-- Our new namespace still has access to the original `/proc`.
-
-- Therefore, it still sees host processes.
-
-- But it cannot affect them.
-
-  (Try to `kill` a process: you will get `No such process`.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## PID namespaces, take 2
-
-- This can be solved by mounting `/proc` in the namespace.
-
-- The `unshare` utility provides a convenience flag, `--mount-proc`.
-
-- This flag will mount `/proc` in the namespace.
-
-- It will also unshare the mount namespace, so that this mount is local.
-
-Try it:
-
-```bash
- $ sudo unshare --pid --fork --mount-proc
- # ps faux
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## OK, really, why do we need `--fork`?
-
-*It is not necessary to remember all these details.
-<br/>
-This is just an illustration of the complexity of namespaces!*
-
-The `unshare` tool calls the `unshare` syscall, then `exec`s the new binary.
-<br/>
-A process calling `unshare` to create new namespaces is moved to the new namespaces...
-<br/>
-... Except for the PID namespace.
-<br/>
-(Because this would change the current PID of the process from X to 1.)
-
-The processes created by the new binary are placed into the new PID namespace.
-<br/>
-The first one will be PID 1.
-<br/>
-If PID 1 exits, it is not possible to create additional processes in the namespace.
-<br/>
-(Attempting to do so will result in `ENOMEM`.)
-
-Without the `--fork` flag, the first command that we execute will be PID 1 ...
-<br/>
-... And once it exits, we cannot create more processes in the namespace!
-
-Check `man 2 unshare` and `man pid_namespaces` if you want more details.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## IPC namespace
-
---
-
-- Does anybody know about IPC?
-
---
-
-- Does anybody *care* about IPC?
-
---
-
-- Allows a process (or group of processes) to have own:
-
-  - IPC semaphores
-  - IPC message queues
-  - IPC shared memory
-
-  ... without risk of conflict with other instances.
-
-- Older versions of PostgreSQL cared about this.
-
-*No demo for that one.*
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## User namespace
-
-- Allows mapping UID/GID; e.g.:
-
-  - UID 0→1999 in container C1 is mapped to UID 10000→11999 on host
-  - UID 0→1999 in container C2 is mapped to UID 12000→13999 on host
-  - etc.
-
-- UID 0 in the container can still perform privileged operations in the container.
-
-  (For instance: setting up network interfaces.)
-
-- But outside of the container, it is a non-privileged user.
-
-- It also means that the UID in containers becomes unimportant.
-
-  (Just use UID 0 in the container, since it gets squashed to a non-privileged user outside.)
-
-- Ultimately enables better privilege separation in container engines.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details, deep-dive
-
-## User namespace challenges
-
-- UID needs to be mapped when passed between processes or kernel subsystems.
-
-- Filesystem permissions and file ownership are more complicated.
-
-  .small[(E.g. when the same root filesystem is shared by multiple containers
-  running with different UIDs.)]
-
-- With the Docker Engine:
-
-  - some feature combinations are not allowed
-    <br/>
-    (e.g. user namespace + host network namespace sharing)
-
-  - user namespaces need to be enabled/disabled globally
-    <br/>
-    (when the daemon is started)
-
-  - container images are stored separately
-    <br/>
-    (so the first time you toggle user namespaces, you need to re-pull images)
-
-*No demo for that one.*
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Time namespace
-
-- Virtualize time
-
-- Expose a slower/faster clock to some processes
-
-  (for e.g. simulation purposes)
-
-- Expose a clock offset to some processes
-
-  (simulation, suspend/restore...)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Cgroup namespace
-
-- Virtualize access to `/proc/<PID>/cgroup`
-
-- Lets containerized processes view their relative cgroup tree
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/plastic-containers.JPG)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-security-features
-class: title
-
- Security features
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-namespaces)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-8)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-copy-on-write-filesystems)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-
-# Security features
-
-- Namespaces and cgroups are not enough to ensure strong security.
-
-- We need extra mechanisms: capabilities, seccomp, LSMs.
-
-- These mechanisms were already used before containers to harden security.
-
-- They can be used together with containers.
-
-- Good container engines will automatically leverage these features.
-
-  (So that you don't have to worry about it.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Capabilities
-
-- In traditional UNIX, many operations are possible if and only if UID=0 (root).
-
-- Some of these operations are very powerful:
-
-  - changing file ownership, accessing all files ...
-
-- Some of these operations deal with system configuration, but can be abused:
-
-  - setting up network interfaces, mounting filesystems ...
-
-- Some of these operations are not very dangerous but are needed by servers:
-
-  - binding to a port below 1024.
-
-- Capabilities are per-process flags to allow these operations individually.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Some capabilities
-
-- `CAP_CHOWN`: arbitrarily change file ownership and permissions.
-
-- `CAP_DAC_OVERRIDE`: arbitrarily bypass file ownership and permissions.
-
-- `CAP_NET_ADMIN`: configure network interfaces, iptables rules, etc.
-
-- `CAP_NET_BIND_SERVICE`: bind a port below 1024.
-
-See `man capabilities` for the full list and details.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Using capabilities
-
-- Container engines will typically drop all "dangerous" capabilities.
-
-- You can then re-enable capabilities on a per-container basis, as needed.
-
-- With the Docker engine: `docker run --cap-add ...`
-
-- If you write your own code to manage capabilities:
-
-  - make sure that you understand what each capability does,
-
-  - read about *ambient* capabilities as well.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Seccomp
-
-- Seccomp is secure computing.
-
-- Achieve high level of security by restricting drastically available syscalls.
-
-- Original seccomp only allows `read()`, `write()`, `exit()`, `sigreturn()`.
-
-- The seccomp-bpf extension allows specifying custom filters with BPF rules.
-
-- This allows filtering by syscall, and by parameter.
-
-- BPF code can perform arbitrarily complex checks, quickly, and safely.
-
-- Container engines take care of this so you don't have to.
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-## Linux Security Modules
-
-- The most popular ones are SELinux and AppArmor.
-
-- Red Hat distros generally use SELinux.
-
-- Debian distros (in particular, Ubuntu) generally use AppArmor.
-
-- LSMs add a layer of access control to all process operations.
-
-- Container engines take care of this so you don't have to.
-
-???
-
-:EN:Containers internals
-:EN:- Control groups (cgroups)
-:EN:- Linux kernel namespaces
-:FR:Fonctionnement interne des conteneurs
-:FR:- Les "control groups" (cgroups)
-:FR:- Les namespaces du noyau Linux
-
-.debug[[containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Namespaces_Cgroups.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/train-of-containers-1.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-copy-on-write-filesystems
-class: title
-
- Copy-on-write filesystems
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-security-features)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-8)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-docker-engine-and-other-container-engines)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Copy-on-write filesystems
-
-Container engines rely on copy-on-write to be able
-to start containers quickly, regardless of their size.
-
-We will explain how that works, and review some of
-the copy-on-write storage systems available on Linux.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## What is copy-on-write?
-
-- Copy-on-write is a mechanism allowing to share data.
-
-- The data appears to be a copy, but is only
-  a link (or reference) to the original data.
-
-- The actual copy happens only when someone
-  tries to change the shared data.
-
-- Whoever changes the shared data ends up
-  using their own copy instead of the shared data.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## A few metaphors
-
---
-
-- First metaphor:
-  <br/>white board and tracing paper
-
---
-
-- Second metaphor:
-  <br/>magic books with shadowy pages
-
---
-
-- Third metaphor:
-  <br/>just-in-time house building
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Copy-on-write is *everywhere*
-
-- Process creation with `fork()`.
-
-- Consistent disk snapshots.
-
-- Efficient VM provisioning.
-
-- And, of course, containers.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Copy-on-write and containers
-
-Copy-on-write is essential to give us "convenient" containers.
-
-- Creating a new container (from an existing image) is "free".
-
-  (Otherwise, we would have to copy the image first.)
-
-- Customizing a container (by tweaking a few files) is cheap.
-
-  (Adding a 1 KB configuration file to a 1 GB container takes 1 KB, not 1 GB.)
-
-- We can take snapshots, i.e. have "checkpoints" or "save points"
-  when building images.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## AUFS overview
-
-- The original (legacy) copy-on-write filesystem used by first versions of Docker.
-
-- Combine multiple *branches* in a specific order.
-
-- Each branch is just a normal directory.
-
-- You generally have:
-
-  - at least one read-only branch (at the bottom),
-
-  - exactly one read-write branch (at the top).
-
-  (But other fun combinations are possible too!)
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## AUFS operations: opening a file
-
-- With `O_RDONLY` - read-only access:
-
-  - look it up in each branch, starting from the top
-
-  - open the first one we find
-
-- With `O_WRONLY` or `O_RDWR` - write access:
-
-  - if the file exists on the top branch: open it
-
-  - if the file exists on another branch: "copy up"
-    <br/>
-    (i.e. copy the file to the top branch and open the copy)
-
-  - if the file doesn't exist on any branch: create it on the top branch
-
-That "copy-up" operation can take a while if the file is big!
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## AUFS operations: deleting a file
-
-- A *whiteout* file is created.
-
-- This is similar to the concept of "tombstones" used in some data systems.
-
-```
- # docker run ubuntu rm /etc/shadow
-
- # ls -la /var/lib/docker/aufs/diff/$(docker ps --no-trunc -lq)/etc
- total 8
- drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Jan 27 15:36 .
- drwxr-xr-x 5 root root 4096 Jan 27 15:36 ..
- -r--r--r-- 2 root root    0 Jan 27 15:36 .wh.shadow
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## AUFS performance
-
-- AUFS `mount()` is fast, so creation of containers is quick.
-
-- Read/write access has native speeds.
-
-- But initial `open()` is expensive in two scenarios:
-
-  - when writing big files (log files, databases ...),
-
-  - when searching many directories (PATH, classpath, etc.) over many layers.
-
-- Protip: when we built dotCloud, we ended up putting
-  all important data on *volumes*.
-
-- When starting the same container multiple times:
-
-  - the data is loaded only once from disk, and cached only once in memory;
-
-  - but `dentries` will be duplicated.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Device Mapper
-
-Device Mapper is a rich subsystem with many features.
-
-It can be used for: RAID, encrypted devices, snapshots, and more.
-
-In the context of containers (and Docker in particular), "Device Mapper"
-means:
-
-"the Device Mapper system + its *thin provisioning target*"
-
-If you see the abbreviation "thinp" it stands for "thin provisioning".
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Device Mapper principles
-
-- Copy-on-write happens on the *block* level
-  (instead of the *file* level).
-
-- Each container and each image get their own block device.
-
-- At any given time, it is possible to take a snapshot:
-
-  - of an existing container (to create a frozen image),
-
-  - of an existing image (to create a container from it).
-
-- If a block has never been written to:
-
-  - it's assumed to be all zeros,
-
-  - it's not allocated on disk.
-
-(That last property is the reason for the name "thin" provisioning.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Device Mapper operational details
-
-- Two storage areas are needed:
-  one for *data*, another for *metadata*.
-
-- "data" is also called the "pool"; it's just a big pool of blocks.
-
-  (Docker uses the smallest possible block size, 64 KB.)
-
-- "metadata" contains the mappings between virtual offsets (in the
-  snapshots) and physical offsets (in the pool).
-
-- Each time a new block (or a copy-on-write block) is written,
-  a block is allocated from the pool.
-
-- When there are no more blocks in the pool, attempts to write
-  will stall until the pool is increased (or the write operation
-  aborted).
-
-- In other words: when running out of space, containers are
-  frozen, but operations will resume as soon as space is available.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Device Mapper performance
-
-- By default, Docker puts data and metadata on a loop device
-  backed by a sparse file.
-
-- This is great from a usability point of view,
-  since zero configuration is needed.
-
-- But it is terrible from a performance point of view:
-
-  - each time a container writes to a new block,
-  - a block has to be allocated from the pool,
-  - and when it's written to,
-  - a block has to be allocated from the sparse file,
-  - and sparse file performance isn't great anyway.
-
-- If you use Device Mapper, make sure to put data (and metadata)
-  on devices!
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## BTRFS principles
-
-- BTRFS is a filesystem (like EXT4, XFS, NTFS...) with built-in snapshots.
-
-- The "copy-on-write" happens at the filesystem level.
-
-- BTRFS integrates the snapshot and block pool management features
-  at the filesystem level.
-
-  (Instead of the block level for Device Mapper.)
-
-- In practice, we create a "subvolume" and 
-  later take a "snapshot" of that subvolume.
-
-  Imagine: `mkdir` with Super Powers and `cp -a` with Super Powers.
-
-- These operations can be executed with the `btrfs` CLI tool.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## BTRFS in practice with Docker
-
-- Docker can use BTRFS and its snapshotting features to store container images.
-
-- The only requirement is that `/var/lib/docker` is on a BTRFS filesystem.
-
-  (Or, the directory specified with the `--data-root` flag when starting the engine.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-class: extra-details
-
-## BTRFS quirks
-
-- BTRFS works by dividing its storage in *chunks*.
-
-- A chunk can contain data or metadata.
-
-- You can run out of chunks (and get `No space left on device`)
-  even though `df` shows space available.
-  
-  (Because chunks are only partially allocated.)
-
-- Quick fix:
-
-```
- # btrfs filesys balance start -dusage=1 /var/lib/docker
-```
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Overlay2
-
-- Overlay2 is very similar to AUFS.
-
-- However, it has been merged in "upstream" kernel.
-
-- It is therefore available on all modern kernels.
-
-  (AUFS was available on Debian and Ubuntu, but required custom kernels on other distros.)
-
-- It is simpler than AUFS (it can only have two branches, called "layers").
-
-- The container engine abstracts this detail, so this is not a concern.
-
-- Overlay2 storage drivers generally use hard links between layers.
-
-- This improves `stat()` and `open()` performance, at the expense of inode usage.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## ZFS
-
-- ZFS is similar to BTRFS (at least from a container user's perspective).
-
-- Pros:
-
-  - high performance
-  - high reliability (with e.g. data checksums)
-  - optional data compression and deduplication
-
-- Cons:
-
-  - high memory usage
-  - not in upstream kernel
-
-- It is available as a kernel module or through FUSE.
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-## Which one is the best?
-
-- Eventually, overlay2 should be the best option.
-
-- It is available on all modern systems.
-
-- Its memory usage is better than Device Mapper, BTRFS, or ZFS.
-
-- The remarks about *write performance* shouldn't bother you:
-  <br/>
-  data should always be stored in volumes anyway!
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Copy-on-write filesystems
-:EN:- Docker graph drivers
-:FR:- Les systèmes de fichiers "copy-on-write"
-:FR:- Les "graph drivers" de Docker
-
-.debug[[containers/Copy_On_Write.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Copy_On_Write.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/train-of-containers-2.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-docker-engine-and-other-container-engines
-class: title
-
- Docker Engine and other container engines
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-copy-on-write-filesystems)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-9)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-container-super-structure)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Docker Engine and other container engines
-
-* We are going to cover the architecture of the Docker Engine.
-
-* We will also present other container engines.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Docker Engine external architecture
-
-![](images/docker-engine-architecture.svg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## Docker Engine external architecture
-
-* The Engine is a daemon (service running in the background).
-
-* All interaction is done through a REST API exposed over a socket.
-
-* On Linux, the default socket is a UNIX socket: `/var/run/docker.sock`.
-
-* We can also use a TCP socket, with optional mutual TLS authentication.
-
-* The `docker` CLI communicates with the Engine over the socket.
-
-Note: strictly speaking, the Docker API is not fully REST.
-
-Some operations (e.g. dealing with interactive containers
-and log streaming) don't fit the REST model.
- 
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Docker Engine internal architecture
-
-![](images/dockerd-and-containerd.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## Docker Engine internal architecture
-
-* Up to Docker 1.10: the Docker Engine is one single monolithic binary.
-
-* Starting with Docker 1.11, the Engine is split into multiple parts:
-
-  - `dockerd` (REST API, auth, networking, storage)
-
-  - `containerd` (container lifecycle, controlled over a gRPC API)
-
-  - `containerd-shim` (per-container; does almost nothing but allows to restart the Engine without restarting the containers)
-
-  - `runc` (per-container; does the actual heavy lifting to start the container)
-
-* Some features (like image and snapshot management) are progressively being pushed from `dockerd` to `containerd`.
-
-For more details, check [this short presentation by Phil Estes](https://www.slideshare.net/PhilEstes/diving-through-the-layers-investigating-runc-containerd-and-the-docker-engine-architecture).
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## Other container engines
-
-The following list is not exhaustive.
-
-Furthermore, we limited the scope to Linux containers.
-
-We can also find containers (or things that look like containers) on other platforms
-like Windows, macOS, Solaris, FreeBSD ...
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## LXC
-
-* The venerable ancestor (first released in 2008).
-
-* Docker initially relied on it to execute containers.
-
-* No daemon; no central API.
-
-* Each container is managed by a `lxc-start` process.
-
-* Each `lxc-start` process exposes a custom API over a local UNIX socket, allowing to interact with the container.
-
-* No notion of image (container filesystems have to be managed manually).
-
-* Networking has to be set up manually.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## LXD
-
-* Re-uses LXC code (through liblxc).
-
-* Builds on top of LXC to offer a more modern experience.
-
-* Daemon exposing a REST API.
-
-* Can manage images, snapshots, migrations, networking, storage.
-
-* "offers a user experience similar to virtual machines but using Linux containers instead."
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## CRI-O
-
-* Designed to be used with Kubernetes as a simple, basic runtime.
-
-* Compares to `containerd`.
-
-* Daemon exposing a gRPC interface.
-
-* Controlled using the CRI API (Container Runtime Interface defined by Kubernetes).
-
-* Needs an underlying OCI runtime (e.g. runc).
-
-* Handles storage, images, networking (through CNI plugins).
-
-We're not aware of anyone using it directly (i.e. outside of Kubernetes).
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## systemd
-
-* "init" system (PID 1) in most modern Linux distributions.
-
-* Offers tools like `systemd-nspawn` and `machinectl` to manage containers.
-
-* `systemd-nspawn` is "In many ways it is similar to chroot(1), but more powerful".
-
-* `machinectl` can interact with VMs and containers managed by systemd.
-
-* Exposes a DBUS API.
-
-* Basic image support (tar archives and raw disk images).
-
-* Network has to be set up manually.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## Kata containers
-
-* OCI-compliant runtime.
-
-* Fusion of two projects: Intel Clear Containers and Hyper runV.
-
-* Run each container in a lightweight virtual machine.
-
-* Requires running on bare metal *or* with nested virtualization.
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## gVisor
-
-* OCI-compliant runtime.
-
-* Implements a subset of the Linux kernel system calls.
-
-* Written in go, uses a smaller subset of system calls.
-
-* Can be heavily sandboxed.
-
-* Can run in two modes:
-
-  * KVM (requires bare metal or nested virtualization),
-
-  * ptrace (no requirement, but slower).
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-## Overall ...
-
-* The Docker Engine is very developer-centric:
-
-  - easy to install
-
-  - easy to use
-
-  - no manual setup
-
-  - first-class image build and transfer
-
-* As a result, it is a fantastic tool in development environments.
-
-* On servers:
-
-  - Docker is a good default choice
-
-  - If you use Kubernetes, the engine doesn't matter
-
-.debug[[containers/Container_Engines.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Container_Engines.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/two-containers-on-a-truck.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-container-super-structure
-class: title
-
- Container Super-structure
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-docker-engine-and-other-container-engines)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-9)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-the-container-ecosystem)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Container Super-structure
-
-- Multiple orchestration platforms support some kind of container super-structure.
-
-  (i.e., a construct or abstraction bigger than a single container.)
-
-- For instance, on Kubernetes, this super-structure is called a *pod*.
-
-- A pod is a group of containers (it could be a single container, too).
-
-- These containers run together, on the same host.
-
-  (A pod cannot straddle multiple hosts.)
-
-- All the containers in a pod have the same IP address.
-
-- How does that map to the Docker world?
-
-.debug[[containers/Pods_Anatomy.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Pods_Anatomy.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Anatomy of a Pod
-
-![Pods](images/kubernetes_pods.svg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Pods_Anatomy.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Pods_Anatomy.md)]
----
-
-## Pods in Docker
-
-- The containers inside a pod share the same network namespace.
-
-  (Just like when using `docker run --net=container:<container_id>` with the CLI.)
-
-- As a result, they can communicate together over `localhost`.
-
-- In addition to "our" containers, the pod has a special container, the *sandbox*.
-
-- That container uses a special image: `k8s.gcr.io/pause`.
-
-  (This is visible when listing containers running on a Kubernetes node.)
-
-- Containers within a pod have independent filesystems.
-
-- They can share directories by using a mechanism called *volumes.*
-
-  (Which is similar to the concept of volumes in Docker.)
-
-.debug[[containers/Pods_Anatomy.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Pods_Anatomy.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/wall-of-containers.jpeg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-the-container-ecosystem
-class: title
-
- The container ecosystem
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-container-super-structure)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-9)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-orchestration-an-overview)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# The container ecosystem
-
-In this chapter, we will talk about a few actors of the container ecosystem.
-
-We have (arbitrarily) decided to focus on two groups:
-
-- the Docker ecosystem,
-
-- the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF) and its projects.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## The Docker ecosystem
-
-![The Docker ecosystem in 2015](images/docker-ecosystem-2015.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-## Moby vs. Docker
-
-- Docker Inc. (the company) started Docker (the open source project).
-
-- At some point, it became necessary to differentiate between:
-
-  - the open source project (code base, contributors...),
-
-  - the product that we use to run containers (the engine),
-
-  - the platform that we use to manage containerized applications,
-
-  - the brand.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-![Picture of a Tesla](images/tesla.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-## Exercise in brand management
-
-Questions:
-
---
-
-- What is the brand of the car on the previous slide?
-
---
-
-- What kind of engine does it have?
-
---
-
-- Would you say that it's a safe or unsafe car?
-
---
-
-- Harder question: can you drive from the US West to East coasts with it?
-
---
-
-The answers to these questions are part of the Tesla brand.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-## What if ...
-
-- The blueprints for Tesla cars were available for free.
-
-- You could legally build your own Tesla.
-
-- You were allowed to customize it entirely.
-
-  (Put a combustion engine, drive it with a game pad ...)
-
-- You could even sell the customized versions.
-
---
-
-- ... And call your customized version "Tesla".
-
---
-
-Would we give the same answers to the questions on the previous slide?
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-## From Docker to Moby
-
-- Docker Inc. decided to split the brand.
-
-- Moby is the open source project.
-
-  (= Components and libraries that you can use, reuse, customize, sell ...)
-
-- Docker is the product.
-
-  (= Software that you can use, buy support contracts ...)
-
-- Docker is made with Moby.
-
-- When Docker Inc. improves the Docker products, it improves Moby.
-
-  (And vice versa.)
-
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-## Other examples
-
-- *Read the Docs* is an open source project to generate and host documentation.
-
-- You can host it yourself (on your own servers).
-
-- You can also get hosted on readthedocs.org.
-
-- The maintainers of the open source project often receive
-  support requests from users of the hosted product ...
-
-- ... And the maintainers of the hosted product often
-  receive support requests from users of self-hosted instances.
-
-- Another example:
-
-  *WordPress.com is a blogging platform that is owned and hosted online by
-  Automattic. It is run on WordPress, an open source piece of software used by
-  bloggers. (Wikipedia)*
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-## Docker CE vs Docker EE
-
-- Docker CE = Community Edition.
-
-- Available on most Linux distros, Mac, Windows.
-
-- Optimized for developers and ease of use.
-
-- Docker EE = Enterprise Edition.
-
-- Available only on a subset of Linux distros + Windows servers.
-
-  (Only available when there is a strong partnership to offer enterprise-class support.)
-
-- Optimized for production use.
-
-- Comes with additional components: security scanning, RBAC ...
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-## The CNCF
-
-- Non-profit, part of the Linux Foundation; founded in December 2015. 
-
-  *The Cloud Native Computing Foundation builds sustainable ecosystems and fosters
-  a community around a constellation of high-quality projects that orchestrate
-  containers as part of a microservices architecture.*
-
-  *CNCF is an open source software foundation dedicated to making cloud-native computing universal and sustainable.*
-
-- Home of Kubernetes (and many other projects now).
-
-- Funded by corporate memberships.
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-![Cloud Native Landscape](https://landscape.cncf.io/images/landscape.png)
-
-
-.debug[[containers/Ecosystem.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Ecosystem.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/catene-de-conteneurs.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-orchestration-an-overview
-class: title
-
- Orchestration, an overview
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-the-container-ecosystem)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-9)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-links-and-resources)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Orchestration, an overview
-
-In this chapter, we will:
-
-* Explain what is orchestration and why we would need it.
-
-* Present (from a high-level perspective) some orchestrators.
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## What's orchestration?
-
-![Joana Carneiro (orchestra conductor)](images/conductor.jpg)
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## What's orchestration?
-
-According to Wikipedia:
-
-*Orchestration describes the __automated__ arrangement,
-coordination, and management of complex computer systems,
-middleware, and services.*
-
---
-
-*[...] orchestration is often discussed in the context of 
-__service-oriented architecture__, __virtualization__, provisioning, 
-Converged Infrastructure and __dynamic datacenter__ topics.*
-
---
-
-What does that really mean?
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Example 1: dynamic cloud instances
-
---
-
-- Q: do we always use 100% of our servers?
-
---
-
-- A: obviously not!
-
-.center[![Daily variations of traffic](images/traffic-graph.png)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Example 1: dynamic cloud instances
-
-- Every night, scale down
-  
-  (by shutting down extraneous replicated instances)
-
-- Every morning, scale up
-  
-  (by deploying new copies)
-
-- "Pay for what you use"
-  
-  (i.e. save big $$$ here)
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Example 1: dynamic cloud instances
-
-How do we implement this?
-
-- Crontab
-  
-- Autoscaling (save even bigger $$$)
-
-That's *relatively* easy.
-
-Now, how are things for our IAAS provider?
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Example 2: dynamic datacenter
-
-- Q: what's the #1 cost in a datacenter?
-
---
-
-- A: electricity!
-
---
-
-- Q: what uses electricity?
-
---
-
-- A: servers, obviously
-
-- A: ... and associated cooling
-
---
-
-- Q: do we always use 100% of our servers?
-
---
-
-- A: obviously not!
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Example 2: dynamic datacenter
-
-- If only we could turn off unused servers during the night...
-
-- Problem: we can only turn off a server if it's totally empty!
-  
-  (i.e. all VMs on it are stopped/moved)
-
-- Solution: *migrate* VMs and shutdown empty servers
-  
-  (e.g. combine two hypervisors with 40% load into 80%+0%,
-  <br/>and shut down the one at 0%)
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Example 2: dynamic datacenter
-
-How do we implement this?
-
-- Shut down empty hosts (but keep some spare capacity)
-
-- Start hosts again when capacity gets low
-
-- Ability to "live migrate" VMs
-  
-  (Xen already did this 10+ years ago)
-
-- Rebalance VMs on a regular basis
-  
-  - what if a VM is stopped while we move it?
-  - should we allow provisioning on hosts involved in a migration?
-
-*Scheduling* becomes more complex.
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## What is scheduling?
-
-According to Wikipedia (again):
-
-*In computing, scheduling is the method by which threads, 
-processes or data flows are given access to system resources.*
-
-The scheduler is concerned mainly with:
-
-- throughput (total amount of work done per time unit);
-- turnaround time (between submission and completion);
-- response time (between submission and start);
-- waiting time (between job readiness and execution);
-- fairness (appropriate times according to priorities).
-
-In practice, these goals often conflict.
-
-**"Scheduling" = decide which resources to use.**
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Exercise 1
-
-- You have:
-
-  - 5 hypervisors (physical machines)
-
-- Each server has:
-
-  - 16 GB RAM, 8 cores, 1 TB disk
-
-- Each week, your team requests:
-
-  - one VM with X RAM, Y CPU, Z disk
-
-Scheduling = deciding which hypervisor to use for each VM.
-
-Difficulty: easy!
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-<!-- Warning, two almost identical slides (for img effect) -->
-
-## Exercise 2
-
-- You have:
-
-  - 1000+ hypervisors (and counting!)
-
-- Each server has different resources:
-
-  - 8-500 GB of RAM, 4-64 cores, 1-100 TB disk
-
-- Multiple times a day, a different team asks for:
-
-  - up to 50 VMs with different characteristics
-
-Scheduling = deciding which hypervisor to use for each VM.
-
-Difficulty: ???
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-<!-- Warning, two almost identical slides (for img effect) -->
-
-## Exercise 2
-
-- You have:
-
-  - 1000+ hypervisors (and counting!)
-
-- Each server has different resources:
-
-  - 8-500 GB of RAM, 4-64 cores, 1-100 TB disk
-
-- Multiple times a day, a different team asks for:
-
-  - up to 50 VMs with different characteristics
-
-Scheduling = deciding which hypervisor to use for each VM.
-
-![Troll face](images/trollface.png)
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Exercise 3
-
-- You have machines (physical and/or virtual)
-
-- You have containers
-
-- You are trying to put the containers on the machines
-
-- Sounds familiar?
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Scheduling with one resource
-
-.center[![Not-so-good bin packing](images/binpacking-1d-1.gif)]
-
-## We can't fit a job of size 6 :(
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Scheduling with one resource
-
-.center[![Better bin packing](images/binpacking-1d-2.gif)]
-
-## ... Now we can!
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Scheduling with two resources
-
-.center[![2D bin packing](images/binpacking-2d.gif)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Scheduling with three resources
-
-.center[![3D bin packing](images/binpacking-3d.gif)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## You need to be good at this
-
-.center[![Tangram](images/tangram.gif)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## But also, you must be quick!
-
-.center[![Tetris](images/tetris-1.png)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## And be web scale!
-
-.center[![Big tetris](images/tetris-2.gif)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## And think outside (?) of the box!
-
-.center[![3D tetris](images/tetris-3.png)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-## Good luck!
-
-.center[![FUUUUUU face](images/fu-face.jpg)]
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## TL,DR
-
-* Scheduling with multiple resources (dimensions) is hard.
-
-* Don't expect to solve the problem with a Tiny Shell Script.
-
-* There are literally tons of research papers written on this.
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## But our orchestrator also needs to manage ...
-
-* Network connectivity (or filtering) between containers.
-
-* Load balancing (external and internal).
-
-* Failure recovery (if a node or a whole datacenter fails).
-
-* Rolling out new versions of our applications.
-
-  (Canary deployments, blue/green deployments...)
-
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Some orchestrators
-
-We are going to present briefly a few orchestrators.
-
-There is no "absolute best" orchestrator.
-
-It depends on:
-
-- your applications,
-
-- your requirements,
-
-- your pre-existing skills...
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Nomad
-
-- Open Source project by Hashicorp.
-
-- Arbitrary scheduler (not just for containers).
-
-- Great if you want to schedule mixed workloads.
-
-  (VMs, containers, processes...)
-
-- Less integration with the rest of the container ecosystem.
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Mesos
-
-- Open Source project in the Apache Foundation.
-
-- Arbitrary scheduler (not just for containers).
-
-- Two-level scheduler.
-
-- Top-level scheduler acts as a resource broker.
-
-- Second-level schedulers (aka "frameworks") obtain resources from top-level.
-
-- Frameworks implement various strategies.
-
-  (Marathon = long running processes; Chronos = run at intervals; ...)
-
-- Commercial offering through DC/OS by Mesosphere.
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Rancher
-
-- Rancher 1 offered a simple interface for Docker hosts.
-
-- Rancher 2 is a complete management platform for Docker and Kubernetes.
-
-- Technically not an orchestrator, but it's a popular option.
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Swarm
-
-- Tightly integrated with the Docker Engine.
-
-- Extremely simple to deploy and setup, even in multi-manager (HA) mode.
-
-- Secure by default.
-
-- Strongly opinionated:
-
-  - smaller set of features,
-
-  - easier to operate.
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-
-## Kubernetes
-
-- Open Source project initiated by Google.
-
-- Contributions from many other actors.
-
-- *De facto* standard for container orchestration.
-
-- Many deployment options; some of them very complex.
-
-- Reputation: steep learning curve.
-
-- Reality:
-
-  - true, if we try to understand *everything*;
-
-  - false, if we focus on what matters.
-
-???
-
-:EN:- Orchestration overview
-:FR:- Survol de techniques d'orchestration 
-
-.debug[[containers/Orchestration_Overview.md](""/tree/main/slides/containers/Orchestration_Overview.md)]
----
-class: title, self-paced
-
-Thank you!
-
-.debug[[shared/thankyou.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/thankyou.md)]
----
-
-class: title, in-person
-
-That's all, folks! <br/> Questions?
-
-![end](images/end.jpg)
-
-.debug[[shared/thankyou.md](""/tree/main/slides/shared/thankyou.md)]
----
-
-class: pic
-
-.interstitial[![Image separating from the next part](https://gallant-turing-d0d520.netlify.com/containers/Container-Ship-Freighter-Navigation-Elbe-Romance-1782991.jpg)]
-
----
-
-name: toc-links-and-resources
-class: title
-
- Links and resources
-
-.nav[
-[Previous part](#toc-orchestration-an-overview)
-|
-[Back to table of contents](#toc-part-9)
-|
-[Next part](#toc-)
-]
-
-.debug[(automatically generated title slide)]
-
----
-# Links and resources
-
-- [Docker Community Slack](https://community.docker.com/registrations/groups/4316)
-- [Docker Community Forums](https://forums.docker.com/)
-- [Docker Hub](https://hub.docker.com)
-- [Docker Blog](https://blog.docker.com/)
-- [Docker documentation](https://docs.docker.com/)
-- [Docker on StackOverflow](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/docker)
-- [Docker on Twitter](https://twitter.com/docker)
-- [Play With Docker Hands-On Labs](https://training.play-with-docker.com/)
-
-.footnote[These slides (and future updates) are on → https://container.training/]
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